Creative achievement in the legal and political sciences has long been eminent in France, as is testified by the early commentaries and treatises of CUJAS, DONEAU, BODIN, GODEFROY, DUMOULIN, DOMAT, POTHIER, ROUSEAU, MONTESQUIEU, and many others. During the early and middle nineteenth century, the literature of political science was enriched by the writings of Benjamin CONSTANT, ROYER-COLLARD, CHATEAUBRIAND, GUIZOT, Rossi, DE TOCQUEVILLE, DE BROGUE, PRÉVOST-PARADOL, Jules SIMON, VIVIEN, DUPONT-WHITE, LABOULAYE, and a host of others. As early as 1834 a chair of constitutional law was established at Paris; it was occupied for ten years by the famous Rossi, who resigned it in 1845 to become ambassador to Rome. In 1871 Émile BOUTMY founded at Paris the "École Libre des Sciences Politiques," a school which has done much to stimulate interest in the study of political science, and which is today attended by a large number of students. Boutmy during his lifetime contributed much to the literature of political science, and his works are well-known and admired in America.

The achievements of recent French scholarship in this field, as in so many others, have not generally been appreciated at their full value in America. In quantity of output the Germans have undoubtedly outstripped the French. But in quality the contributions of French scholars to scientific literature surpass in lucidity, orderliness of arrangement, and attractiveness of style, those of any other nation. It may be seriously doubted whether any other country at present has a larger group of distinguished authorities or a richer literature in the fields of international law and administrative science.

In more recent years the literature of Constitutional Law has been enriched by the scholarly contributions of SALEILLES, ESMEIN, LARNAUDE, JÈZE, DUGUIT, HAURIOU, MOREAU, BARTHÉLEMY, BERTHÉLEMY, and others, all of whom (except the first two) are still active. ESMEIN, who died in 1913, was recognized as the highest authority on French constitutional law and legal history. His works are many, the best known being his "Histoire du droit français" and his "Éléments de droit constitutionnel français et comparé." The latter is recognized in France as the standard treatise; it has gone through many editions, and is well known in America. Of the living scholars in this field, DUGUIT, professor in the University of Bordeaux, occupies the first place among the French authorities on political science and constitutional law. His best known works are his "Traité de droit constitutionnel" (2 vols.), "Les transformations du droit public," "Études de droit public" (2 vols.), and "Le droit social"; the first mentioned work is one of the most valuable treatises on comparative constitutional law and government to be found in any language, and for the study of the French constitution it is indispensable.

In the field of Administrative Science and Administrative Law, French scholars have long excelled those of other countries. The older treatises of CORMENIN ("Questions de droit administratif," 2 vols., 1822), SERRIGNY ("Traité de droit public des Français," 2 vols., 1845), and VIVIEN ("Études administratives," 2 vols., 1852), laid the foundations of a great branch of jurisprudence such as is not found in America. This literature was later enriched by the more comprehensive treatises of LAFERRIÈRE ("Traité de la juridiction administrative," 2 vols., 1887-1888; the standard work on the subject), of BATBIE ("Traité théorique et pratique du droit public et administratif," 7 vols., 1862), and DUFOUR, ("Traité général de droit administratif," 8 vols., 1867-1870). Of the living authorities in this field, the best known are BERTHÉLEMY of Paris, whose "Traité de droit administratif" is regarded in France as the standard general authority on French administrative law; JÈZE, likewise of Paris, whose recently published work, "Les principes généraux du droit administratif," reflects the highest credit upon French scholarship; HAURIOU, of Toulouse, author of many works in this field, the best known of which is his "Précis de droit administratif et de droit public" (8th ed., 1914) MOREAU, of Aix-Marseilles, author of a notable study entitled "Le règlement administratif;" BRÉMOND; JACQUELIN; TESSIER; CAHEN; and others, the titles of whose studies it is impossible for lack of space to mention. It may be safely said that no other country has produced so many distinguished writers in this field, or a literature so extensive and valuable.

In the field of International Law, both public and private, the French have likewise long held a preëminent place. No other country has produced a larger number of high authorities or a more extensive and scholarly literature. It is impossible here to do more than merely mention the names of the leading authorities. By common consent, RENAULT of Paris is recognized as occupying the first place among the scholars of France, if not of the world, as an authority on international law. In 1907 he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. Associated with him in the University of Paris are PIÉDELIÈVRE and PILLET, whose contributions to the literature of the law of war are regarded with high respect, and G. DE LAPRADELLE, whose collection of international arbitrations is well known. BONFILS, of the University of Toulouse, is the author of a treatise entitled "Manuel de droit international public," which is regarded as the standard general authority in French. The ponderous treatise of PRADIER-FODÉRÉ, "Traité de droit international public Européen et Américain," in eight volumes, is the most elaborate work of the kind in any language. MÉRIGNHAC of Toulouse is likewise a well-known authority, and is the author of a number of works, the most notable of which is his "Traité de droit international public" in two volumes. DESPAGNET is another highly respected writer in this field, and the author of many publications, his principal contribution being a work entitled "Cours de droit international public." An important contribution on international law as applied to maritime warfare is DE BOECK'S "De la propriété privée ennemie sous pavillon ennemi"; while LÉMONON and DUPUIS have both made substantial contributions to the literature dealing with the work of the two Hague conferences. Among other important French writers in this field may be mentioned the older authorities, HAUTEFEUILLE, PISTOYE, DU VERDY, ROUARD DE CARD, and the more recent authors, FUNCK-BRENTANO, SOREL, ROLLAND, VALLERY, POLITIS, DESJARDINS, DUPLESSIX, BASDEVANT, IMBART DE LA TOUR GUELLE, FERAND-GIRAUD, FAUCHILLE (the learned editor of the "Revue Générale de Droit international public"), and WEISS, the author of a monumental work in four volumes entitled "Droit international privé."

The large number of distinguished French scholars in this field, the richness of the literature, and the exceptional library facilities, especially in Paris, easily make the University of Paris the most important center of the world for the study of international law.

In the field of Colonial Administration and Legislation, French interest and scholarship are scarcely less preeminent, and the literature is extensive. In this field GIRAULT and LARCHER are the two leading authorities. It may be mentioned in this connection that there is a special school at Paris for the training of young men for careers in the colonial service. At Bordeaux there is a Colonial Institute; at Aix-Marseille, a School of Colonial Medicine and Pharmacy; at Nancy, a Colonial Institute.

In Legal History, the researches of the French have been especially noteworthy, and the literature in this field is extensive in quantity and unexcelled in quality. Among the more recent French scholars who have made notable contributions along this line may be mentioned FUSTEL DE COULANGES, LUCHAIRE, GLASSON, DARESTE, PLANIOL, CHÉNON, GARRAUD, and LEFÈBVRE. Naturally the French have given much attention to the study of Roman law, as is testified by the treatises of ORTOLAN, GIRARD, GIDE, GÉRARDIN, GIRAUD, CUQ, APPLETON, MAY, AUDIBERT, HUVELIN, and others. On the theory and philosophy of law there are likewise numerous treatises of a scholarly character, among which may be mentioned the writings of LARNAUDE, DUGUIT, LAMBERT, MICHOUD, HAURIOU, SALEILLES, and DEMOGUE. The most comprehensive treatise on the history of political theory in any language is JANET'S "Histoire de la science politique dans ses rapports avec la morale" (2 vols.), a work which not only bears the ear-marks of erudition but is written in a style at once clear and fascinating.

In Economic Science, French contributions to economic theory have been numerous, and from the outset have exerted an important influence upon the development of economic thought. The term "political economy" seems to have been first used as a title for a general treatise by Antoine DE MONTCHRÉTIEN in his volume "Traité de l'Économie Politique," published in 1615. His book was a formal exposition of the principles of mercantilism, which probably received a wider acceptation and application as a State policy in France under Colbert than in any other country. On account of the extremes to which mercantilism was carried and the evils that arose therefrom, the first vigorous protest against mercantilism was voiced in France. BOISGUILLEBERT, Marshal VAUBAN, and FÉNELON contributed to that protest. However, it was not until about the middle of the eighteenth century that reaction against mercantilism became an open protest against the economic policies of the State. The leaders in this movement were the founders of the Physiocratic School of economic thought.

From the viewpoint of economic theory, François QUESNAY was the chief figure in this school. His most important writings were an article "Fermiers," one on "Grains," "Tableau économique," "Maximes générales du gouvernement économique d'un royaume agricole," and "Droit Naturel." Among other representatives of this school the names of GOURNAY and TURGOT should be mentioned. Turgot, while keeping himself formally distinct from the physiocrats, was in essential agreement with their main doctrines, and as statesman gave practical application to their theories. In fact, the achievements of the French Revolution were to a large extent the realization of the reforms advocated by the physiocratic school. In addition, their contributions had an immediate and a profound influence on the economic thinking of the last half of the eighteenth century. Through the writings of Smith and Ricardo, who were both clearly indebted to them, physiocratic influence was carried over into the economic thought of the nineteenth century.

But with the close of the eighteenth century, with the exception of J. B. SAY, France neither produced any important economic works, nor possessed a school of economists, until about 1845, although utopian Socialism flourished in this period.

The rationalism of the eighteenth century led in scientific circles to an unobtrusive but insistent realism, to a distrust of large abstractions, and to a search for objective facts. In the social sciences, this temper resulted in the subordination of the theory of distribution to the concrete problems of State administration and local amelioration. SISMONDI and SAINT-SIMON are more characteristic of the temper of French thought than J. B. SAY and Frédéric BASTIAT, and, as might be supposed, the positive contribution of France in the social sciences is in sociology rather than in economics. Although the liberal views of the eighteenth century have maintained a strong hold on French opinion, there has been a skepticism and a tendency to reaction, which appeared in its extreme forms in the Utopian communism of SAINT-SIMON and FOURIER and in the socialism of Louis BLANC and PROUDHON. This reaction against the mechanistic theories was not without its influence upon John Stuart Mill.

The passion of the realist for facts appears notably in LE PLAY'S monographs of families, in the historical work of LEVASSEUR, and in the highly diversified work of P. LEROY-BEAULIEU.

About the middle of the century, there was a revival of "classical" economic thought, which was associated with the writings of DONOYER and BASTIAT. English influence was clearly uppermost at this time; and after the tariff barriers between England and France had been largely removed in 1860, the influence of the Manchester School became even more pronounced. The commercial agreement just alluded to was largely the work of the eminent French statesman and economist, CHEVALIER, and the English free-trader Cobden.

During the last quarter of the nineteenth century, two factors had an important bearing upon the character of French economic thought. The host of practical questions resulting from the Franco-Prussian War stimulated research in the direction of solutions for these pressing problems. Beginning in 1878, this tendency received additional momentum by the institution of economic courses in the law faculties of various French Universities, in which the instruction was given a more practical turn, greater emphasis being placed upon the legal and administrative phases of these problems.

The teaching of economics is profoundly influenced by this realistic tendency. Economics is studied either as preparation for administrative work or in connection with engineering and business. It is taught in nearly all the technical schools, and some subjects that receive general attention here appear only in the curricula of the technical schools. The economic problems of railroads, for instance, are treated at the École des Ponts et Chaussées. Opportunities for advanced study are most considerable at Paris. The larger choice of courses is offered by the Law School and the École Libre des Sciences Politiques, the latter a private institution not subject to the authority of the Minister of Public Instruction. Some work in economics is done at the École Pratique des Hautes Études, and there are public lectures at the Collège de France. At the Law School and at the École Libre, the study of economics is pursued with special reference to meeting the examination requirements for the higher branches of the administration. The École Libre also offers a course for prospective business men. In the domain of industrial legislation, the greatest activity of studies is found, as appears not only from the treatises of PIC, JAY, CAPITANT, CABOUAT, and BELLOUR, but from the numerous courses of instruction offered in nearly every university.

Reference must here be made to the remarkably good work of French writers on cost analysis, in which they are decidedly in advance of the United States, and perhaps of other countries. Much of the good practical work which is being done in the application of statistics to business in America at the present day is a tardy reflection of the method of cost analysis employed in France. This work has been so fruitful that it may be regarded as one of the parts of economics where our students have most to learn from France.

There is much writing on economic theory, as each professor usually publishes his course-lectures. COLSON has published one of the most extensive works, "Cours d'économie politique" (1901-07), and issues an annual supplement. The work of GIDE is well known through the translation so frequently used in our colleges. The most original work on economic theory is that of LANDRY, "L'intérêt du capital" (1904). The most distinguished economists of the generation have been Paul LEROY-BEAULIEU and the late Émile LEVASSEUR. The works of LEROY-BEAULIEU cover a wide range: "L'administration locale en France et en Angleterre" (1872); "L'état moderne et ses fonctions" (1890); "Le collectivisme" (1894, 1909); "De la colonisation chez les peuples modernes" (1874-1908); "Essai sur la répartition des richesses" (1883); "La question ouvrière au XIXe siècle" (1872); "Traité théorique et pratique d'économie politique" (1896); "La question de la population" (1913); and "Traité de la science des finances" (2 vols., 1879-1912). LEVASSEUR occupies the first place in economic history with scholarly general treatises: "Histoire des classes ouvrières et de l'industrie en France avant 1789" (1859-1901); "Histoire des classes ouvrières de 1789 a 1870" (1867-1904); "La population française" (1889-92); "La France et ses colonies" (1890); "Histoire du commerce de la France" (1911-12); in addition to these general treatises he has also published a number of minor works on economics and geography. GIDE has written upon social problems: "La Coöperation" (1900); "Les sociétés coöperatives de consommation" (1904); "Économie sociale, institutions de progrès social au début du XXe siècle" (1907-1912).

In Finance, there are many notable names. JÈZE has confined himself largely to systematic treatises, "Cours élémentaire de science des finances" (1904-1912); and "Traité de science des finances" (1910). CAILLAUX in the field of taxation has written "L'impôt sur le revenu" (1910); and "Les impôts en France" (1896-1904). René STOURM and Marcel MARION have given special attention to financial history, though both have published in other fields. COLSON is an authority of note upon railroads. His book "Transports et tarifs" (1906) is well known, and his "Abrégé de la législation des chemins de fer et tramways" is of importance. With MARLIO, one of the younger men, Colson presented a notable paper to the International Congress on railroads in 1910. RENAUD has written much on contemporary labor problems, and, in addition, has published a study in Florentine history, ("Histoire du travail à Florence," 1913.") He is also editing the "Histoire universelle du travail," to which he has contributed. Raphael-Georges LÉVY, of the Institute, is well known in France for his many contributions on economics and financial questions, published mainly in the "Revue des deux Mondes."

Institutions and Societies. The activity of French scholars in the several fields with which this chapter deals has by no means been confined to teaching and writing. Through the agency of learned societies they have also done much to stimulate popular interest in the study of political, legal, economic, and penal science, and to provide a body of scientific literature of great value to students. Thus the Société de Législation Comparée, founded in 1870, collects, annotates, and publishes in an "Annuaire," of which 45 volumes have appeared, the principal laws of different countries. The society holds meetings from time to time at which important legislative reforms and questions of public policy are discussed by experts. The proceedings are published in a monthly bulletin, of which 45 volumes have appeared. At one of the meetings, in 1902, for example, the question of the power of the courts to declare acts of the legislature null and void on the ground of unconstitutionality was discussed by a number of the leading jurists of France, and the published proceedings make one of the most valuable contributions to the literature of the subject to be found in any foreign language. In Coöperation with the recently formed Société d'Études Législatives, which likewise publishes a bulletin, it has organized a congress of comparative law, whose purpose is to study the public and private institutions of foreign countries.

A somewhat similar body is the Comité de Législation Étrangère of the Ministry of Justice, which translates and publishes the latest codes of the more important countries.

The Academy of Moral and Political Sciences, one of the five academies of the Institute of France, is a body composed of a small select group of the most distinguished scholars, which devotes itself to the study of questions of legal and political science and which offers prizes for noteworthy productions. The proceedings of the Academy are published, and constitute in the aggregate a valuable body of literature on the subject with which they deal.

Still another learned society which may be mentioned in this connection is the Société générale des Prisons. It is composed mainly of professors of criminal law, criminology, and penology, magistrates, lawyers, and administrators of prisons, and is devoted to the study of questions of criminal law, penology, and the administration of penal institutions. The Society publishes a valuable monthly periodical, the "Revue pénitentiaire et de droit pénal," of which 40 volumes have appeared.

The Institut de Droit International, although its membership is not limited to Frenchmen, was nevertheless founded largely through the initiative of French scholars; they constitute a large and influential part of its membership and its proceedings are published in the French language. The Institute holds annual sessions at different places in Europe and publishes an "Annuaire" (26 volumes to date) containing a report of its proceedings, together with the texts, papers, reports, drafts of projects, etc. The Institute has framed proposed codes of international law, dealing with such matters as aërial navigation, maritime war, land warfare, etc.; on account of the distinguished reputations of the members, the views of the Institute have exerted a marked influence on the recent development of international law.

In addition to the publications of learned societies may be mentioned certain publications of the universities. Notable are the "Annales de l'Université de Lyon," which were started in 1891 and of which 100 volumes have already appeared. The first 40 volumes contain publications dealing with the sciences in general; the others fall into two groups: first, those which deal with the medical sciences; and, second, those which deal with law and letters. This collection is the most extensive and valuable of university publications in France, embracing as it does the results of original work and research. The University of Rennes has published, since 1885, the "Annales de Bretagne," and since 1906 a series entitled "Les travaux juridiques et économiques." Other university publications in France of a serial character are: the "Annales de l'Université de Grenoble," which have appeared regularly since 1890; the "Revue bourguignonne," which has been published by the University of Dijon since 1891; the "Annales des Facultés de droit et des lettres d'Aix" since 1905; and the "Travaux de la conférence de droit pénal" of the Faculty of Law of the University of Paris, since 1910.

Periodicals. The interest and activities of the French in the legal, political, and economic sciences are still further reflected in the numerous reviews and periodicals which they publish. In addition to those already mentioned, and not enumerating those devoted to private law, the best known are: the "Journal de Droit International Privé," which has appeared regularly since 1874, and has since its foundation been edited by the well-known scholar, Edouard CLUNET; the "Revue Générale du Droit International Public," now in its twenty-third year, edited by FAUCHILLE; the "Revue de Droit Public et de la Science Politique," edited by JÈZE, now in its thirty-third volume; the "Revue de Science et de Législation financières," also edited by JÈZE; the "Revue Générale de Droit, de Législation et de jurisprudence," founded in 1877; the "Revue des Sciences politiques" (formerly known as the "Annales des sciences politiques"), published by the École des Sciences Politiques vols.); the "Revue Politique et Parlementaire," founded in 1895, and edited by FAURE (87 vols.); the "Revue de Droit Internationale Privé et de Droit Pénal International," founded in 1905; "Questions pratiques de Législation ouvrière et d'Économie sociale"; the "Revue Générale d'Administration" (38 vols.); the "Revue Internationale du Droit Maritime" (29 vols.); the "Revue Communale" (24 vols.); the "Revue d'Histoire Diplomatique" (27 vols.); and the "Archives Diplomatiques" (129 vols.) All of these are scientific publications containing articles by experts, chroniques, book reviews, texts of important documents, and the like.

For the convenience of students, teachers, and others, there is provided a great variety of collections of laws, decisions of judicial and administrative courts, bulletins, "annuaires,"" répertoires," "dictionnaires," etc. Among them may be mentioned the great Collection of Duvergier in 115 volumes, containing the texts of all the laws, decrees, ordinances, etc., issued by the French government since 1788; the annals of the Senate and Chamber of Deputies, embracing now more than 450 volumes; the "Annuaire" of French legislation in some 40 volumes; the "Annuaire" of foreign legislation, about 45 volumes; a collection of the principal codes of the world, nearly 30 volumes; Sirey's collection of the laws and "arrêtés," about 115 volumes; Dalloz's "Recueil" of laws and decisions, 70 volumes; the decisions of the Council of State since 1798, over 240 volumes; Dalloz's "Jurisprudence Générale" (1887-1897), 69 volumes, supplement (1887-1897), 19 volumes; Rivière and Weiss's "Pandectes françaises," 63 volumes; Bequet's "Répertoire de Droit Administratif," over 30 volumes; and various others.

Courses of Instruction. Instruction in political science, public law, international law, and economics in the French universities is invariably given in the Faculty of Law, thus indicating a closer connection between those fields and that of law than generally exists in American universities. Of the sixteen universities, all (except those of Besançon and Clermont-Ferrand) maintain such faculties, and therefore offer instruction in the above mentioned subjects. All of the law faculties grant certificates of capacity and the degree of Licence en Droit, and those of Paris, Dijon, Grenoble, Lille, Lyon, and Nancy are empowered to grant the degree of Doctor of Law. The latter degree is of two kinds, depending on the nature of the course pursued by the candidate: first, the doctorate in the juridical sciences, and, second, the doctorate in the political and economic sciences. Candidates for the doctor's degree must have taken their Licence in law from a French university or have graduated from an acceptable foreign university.

Paris. For the study of the subjects with which this chapter deals, the University of Paris, of course, ranks first. Its Faculty of Law numbers between forty and fifty professors, agrégés, and chargés. It offers a large and varied number of courses, in civil, commercial, and criminal law, Roman law, legal history, constitutional, administrative, and international law (both public and private), political economy, public finance, statistics, industrial and social legislation, comparative legislation and jurisprudence, diplomatic law and history, colonial law and administration, etc. During the year preceding the outbreak of the great war in 1914, more than 8000 students---about one half the total registration of the university---were enrolled in the Faculty of Law. Viewed, therefore, from the number of students enrolled, the great variety of courses offered, and the number of distinguished professors, the Law Faculty of Paris leads that of all other universities. It may be justly regarded as the most important center of the world for the study of public law, and political science. Among the most distinguished scholars who compose the Faculty of Law may be mentioned BERTHÉLEMY and JACQUELIN in administrative law; BARTHÉLEMY in constitutional and administrative law; JÈZE in administrative law and public finance; LARNAUDE in constitutional law; FLACH in comparative legislation; THALLER and LYON-CAEN in commercial and maritime law; RENAULT, LAPRADELLE, PILLET, and PIÉDELIÈVRE in international public law; WEISS in international private law; FOURNIER and LEFÈBVRE in legal history; GIDE and FAURE in Economics; not to mention the names of GIRARD, CAPITANT, CUQ, GARÇON, PLANIOL, LE POITTEVIN, TISSIER, and others, whose subjects fall more distinctly in the field of private law.

Closely connected with the University of Paris is the ancient Collège de France, founded in 1530, which now maintains forty-five chairs, among the occupants of which may be mentioned Paul LEROY-BEAULIEU in economics and FLACH in comparative legal history.

The library facilities for the study of political science, public law, and economics in Paris are unsurpassed. The library of the Faculty of Law contains 80,000 volumes, and 352 seats are provided in the reading room for students. The Collège de France has a library of 10,000 volumes reserved for the use of professors, besides eleven special libraries. There are also many special but extensive collections in the city of Paris which are available to students. Among these may be mentioned the library of the Court of Cassation, containing 40,000 volumes; of the Court of Appeal, 13,000 volumes; of the Council of State, 36,000 volumes; of the Chamber of Deputies, 250,000 volumes; of the Municipal Council in the Hôtel de Ville, 30,000 volumes; of the Court of Accounts, 25,000 volumes; of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 80,000 volumes, besides the libraries of the other ministries; of the Office of Foreign Legislation and International Law, 60,000 volumes; the historical library of the City of Paris, 400,000 volumes; of the office of Legislative and Parliamentary Labor, 400,000 documents and reports; the library of the Bar at the Palais de Justice, 65,000 volumes; the library of the Society of Comparative Legislation, 18,500 volumes, 7,500 brochures, and 2,000 periodicals; of the Colonial School, 15,000 volumes; and various others. Finally there is the National Library containing 3,000,000 volumes and 110,000 manuscripts.

Other Universities. While Paris, by reason of its larger faculties, its greater variety of courses and its more extensive library facilities, is the chief center in France for the study of political science, public law and economics, nevertheless the opportunities and facilities offered by some of the provincial universities are important and valuable.

Among the provincial universities, that of Lyon is the largest. The Law Faculty embraces about 20 professors and instructors; among the most distinguished names being those of GARRAUD in criminal law, Paul PIC in international law and industrial legislation, and APPLETON in administrative law. A large number of courses in public law, legal history, political economy, industrial legislation, and public finance are offered, and the enrollment of students exceeds in numbers that of any other French university outside of Paris. The university has a collection of 300,000 volumes, of which 140,000 are in the law library. It also has 132,000 theses and brochures, and receives 1,300 periodicals.

A smaller French university which enjoys a high reputation as a center for the study of political science is that of Dijon. It has a law faculty of about 20 professors and agrégés, among the best known of whom, perhaps, are DESSERTEAUX, DELPECH, DESLANDRES, and GAUDEMET. It is one of the favorite universities outside Paris for foreign students, and it maintains a summer school which is attended by many students from abroad.

The University of Grenoble, charmingly situated in the Alps region, conducts, like Dijon, a summer school and makes a special appeal to foreign students. During the year 1912-13 over 1,500 students from foreign countries were registered in this university. The Law Faculty, composed of 16 professors and other members, is one of the ablest of the provincial universities, among its most distinguished professors being MICHOUD in administrative law, BEUDANT in constitutional law, CAILLEMER in legal history, and BASDEVANT in international law. All have made notable contributions to. the literature of their respective subjects and rank among the leading French scholars in their fields. The Law Faculty offers a great variety of courses, and the University possesses a large and well-equipped library.

The University of Lille also has a special strength in political science. The literary activity of its Faculty has been notable; and it numbers such well known scholars as VALLAS, JACQUEY, GUERNIER, LÉVY-ULLMANN, DEMOGUE, SCHATZ, and MOREL.

A smaller and less well-known university, but possessing an able law faculty, is that of Montpellier in Southern France. Among its leading scholars are BRÉMOND in administrative law, CHARMONT in philosophy of law, LABORDE in criminal law, DUBOIS in constitutional law, VALÉRY in international private law, and MOYE in international public law. It offers courses in the usual subjects taught in French law faculties.

The University of Nancy, likewise one of the smaller institutions, possesses an able law faculty of 17 professors and agrégés, including such well-known scholars as in civil law, MICHON in legal history, ROLLAND in administrative law, GAVET in public law, and SIMONET in constitutional law. The University has a library of nearly 200,000 volumes; and the city library contains about 145,000 volumes, including the publications of over 400 learned societies and 263 reviews and periodicals.

One of the oldest and best known provincial universities is that of Poitiers, which has an able law faculty and a library of 100,000 volumes and 180,000 theses and brochures. The University of Rennes, situated in the picturesque country of Brittany, maintains a summer school and, like Dijon and Grenoble, makes a special appeal to foreign students. It has a law faculty of about 20 members, several of whom enjoy distinguished reputations. The university library contains 150,000 volumes and over 67,000 brochures. It is unique in possessing a collection of the British and Foreign state papers of 560 volumes.

The Universities of Bordeaux and of Toulouse, to mention only two others, have strong law faculties, and offer excellent facilities for the study of political science and public law. Among the professors of Bordeaux, the best known to American scholars is Léon DUGUIT, the most eminent of the living French authorities in the fields of constitutional law and political science. At Toulouse, perhaps the best known to us are ROUARD DE CARD, in international private law, MÉRIGNHAC, in international public law, HAURIOU, in administrative law, THOMAS and DECLAREUIL, in legal history, and CÉZAR-BRU, in economic legislation.

Non-university Instruction. Aside from the Universities, there are in France a number of private institutions which make a specialty of instruction in the political and economic sciences. The more important of these are of course in Paris, and include the École Libre des Sciences Politiques; the École des Hautes Études Sociales; the Collège Libre des Sciences Politiques; and the École de Législation professionelle. The University of Lyon also maintains an Institut des Sciences Économiques et Politiques; there are also Instituts Coloniaux at Bordeaux and Nancy for training young men for the colonial service. Finally, there is an École des Hautes Études Commerciales at Paris and Institutes for the study of commerce at Paris, Grenoble, and Nancy.

Of the above mentioned schools the best known is the École Libre des Sciences Politiques at Paris. It was founded by the late Émile BOUTMY, who was its first Director. It is now in its forty-fifth year, and is under the direction of M. EICHTHAL of the Institute. It offers a great variety of courses in the administrative sciences, public finance, political and social economy, international, public and private law and diplomacy, and diplomatic history. Students and auditors are admitted to the lectures without examination, and there is no age requirement for attendance. The course normally runs through three years, and a diploma is granted upon the completion of the course. The corps of instruction is composed of a large number of distinguished scholars of Paris, including many of the professors of the University of Paris, members of the Council of State, members of Parliament, government officials, etc. The school issues a valuable bi-monthly publication, the "Revue des Sciences Politiques," which contains articles mainly by members of the faculty. It possesses a library of about 25,000 volumes and receives some 160 French and foreign reviews and periodicals. The school is very popular and is attended by a large number of students, including Americans and other foreigners preparing for the diplomatic service.

There is a French Psychology as there is an English and a German Psychology. It does not have the distinctly introspective nor the experimental-psycho-physical character that are predominant features of the English and the German psychology. Positivism gave rise to TAINE (1828-1893), whose struggle against the spiritualistic interpretation of psychologic phenomena prepared the way in France for our present-day ideas regarding the relation of genius to insanity and of double personality and allied phenomena to the hysterical constitution. Investigation of these relations was greatly advanced by the work of CHARCOT (1825-1895), in his clinic for nervous and mental diseases at the Salpêtrière (1880), which stimulated the scientific imagination of French students of psychology, and so opened the way for a series of brilliant researches, within recent years, into the nature of certain abnormal mental phenomena. These studies appear to be of fundamental importance. Under controlled conditions they penetrate beyond the data of introspection, and they have already developed our concept of the Unconscious as a residuum of experiences, intelligent in the sense of being adaptable, and hence as supplying the motives of behavior, whether normal or abnormal.

The French psychologists, too, have developed the social aspects of their science. The disciples of Comte had been busy at finding the place of social science in a hierarchy of sciences. Those of Spencer had been occupied with tracing supposed analogies between biological organisms and society, which was assumed to be an organism also. Gabriel TARDE (1843-1904), however, who was professor of Modern Philosophy at the Collège de France from 1900 until his death, was the genius who directed the current of thought away from these purely academic ways, and drew attention to the analysis and description of the nature and combinations of certain distinct social phenomena. First were his studies of imitation as a social fact, which appeared in the "Revue philosophique" between 1882 and 1884, and eventually were brought together in a volume, 'Les Lois de l'imitation," in 1890; this work went into its second edition in 1895. It marks an epoch in the history of psychology, for it opened the eyes of students to the possibility of successful application of psychological method to the study of the behavior of groups. "La Philosophie pénale" appeared in 1891; and later, among the products of Tarde's work in the Collège de France, came his "Études pénales et sociales" and "Psychologie économique."

In the field of general psychology, French investigators stand out less prominently, but here also progress has been made, and the work of Th. RIBOT (1839-1903) is a distinguished record. He became professor of Experimental Psychology in the Collège de France in 1885. In 1888 he set forth a "motor theory" of attention, which was later more fully developed by the American James Mark BALDWIN in "Mental Development in the Child and the Race: Methods and Processes," (1906), and by Ribot himself in "La Psychologie des Sentiments," (1897), in which the author transformed the feelings into phenomena of the central nervous system accompanying bodily processes. Among other works by Ribot which have set the course for present day investigations in France are the following: "L'Hérédité psychologique" (1882); "Les Maladies de la volonté" (1883; 14th ed., 1899); "Les Maladies de la personnalité" (1885; 8th ed., 1899); "La Psychologie de l'attention" (1889).

France is the source of a movement which, in American departments of Psychology, is occupying more attention than any other single object: the invention and application of psychological tests. Alfred BINET (1857-1911), in collaboration with Thomas SIMON (1873-), originated the Binet Tests. Binet established the first psychological laboratory in France at the Sorbonne in 1889, and in 1895 he began the publication of "L'Année psychologique," in which his most important works appear.

Taking the Psychological Review Indices for 1913 and 1914, about one-sixth of all the world's titles on Abnormal Psychology are in the French language by French authors. This will suggest the activity of contemporary work in psychology in France.

Instruction. Paris. All of the sixteen universities in France offer inducements to graduate students in psychology.

Naturally the University of Paris presents the widest range of opportunities, both directly through the university itself and indirectly through numerous auxiliary institutions in the neighborhood. Among these, one must mention first of all, from the point of view of the student of psychology, the Collège de France. Indeed one would hardly go to Paris for research in psychology without taking advantage of this institution of learning.

At the University of Paris are DELBOS (Philosophy and Psychology), Georges DUMAS (Experimental Psychology), LAIGNEL-LAVASTINE (whose studies of Aphasia and of Dementia in syphilitic cases are well known), and Revault D 'ALLONES (whose name is known to students of general Psychology for his work on "Attention" and "Les troubles de l'intelligence"). At the clinic for mental diseases at the Salpêtrière are J. VOISIN, J. SEGLAS, whose investigations relate chiefly to Hallucinations, and P. CHASLIN.

At the Collège de France is Pierre JANET (Experimental Psychology), a giant among scientists, who of contemporary French psychologists is by far the best known to American students. He first demonstrated subconscious perception of sensory stimulations applied to anæsthetic tactile and visual areas; and, more fully than any other investigator, he has analyzed the various forms of amnesia. In his "L'Automatisme psychologique" (1889) and various recent publications in the "Journal de Psychologie normale et pathologique" and other periodicals, he has, on experimental grounds, developed the theory of hysteria in its numerous manifestations, such as double personality, automatic writing, phobias, etc., as phenomena of dissociated processes independent of personal consciousness. These processes he conceives as expressions of residua of early experiences; systematized or organized residua which do not directly affect consciousness, but which are, nevertheless, intelligent, in the sense that, in the conditions of experiment, they lead to suitable adaptations of behavior. It is thus that the scientific imagination of Janet and his collaborators carries us into an experimental psychology that reaches back of the data of the introspection of normal consciousness.

At the Sorbonne, also, are laboratories of Physiological Psychology, PHILIPPE, Director; of Physiology of Sensation, Ch. HENRY, Director; Experimental Psychology, at the Asylum of Villejuif, Edouard TOULOUSE, Director; of Pathological Psychology, MARIE, Director. There is also the Laboratory of Anthropology under the direction of MANOUVRIER and PAPILLAULT.

The institutions for research in the city of Paris offer almost unlimited opportunity to the student who is interested in physiological psychology and mental pathology. Moreover, the French universities, almost without exception, and especially the University of Paris and the Collège de France, are rich in opportunities for the student whose interest is in the social aspects of Psychology, particularly in as far as this subject leads into the study of Ethnography, Anthropology, and Antiquities. Almost every university has its museum or society devoted to one or all of these subjects.

Other Universities. While the great contributions to Psychology by French scholars have been made in the fields mentioned above, it is not to be inferred that in other regions they are inactive. Noteworthy work has recently been done by R. BOURDON at Rennes, for example, in the perception of movements. Studies of attention have been made in the laboratory at Montpellier in which the subjects were young children, and in the same university FOUCAULT has lately contributed to certain aspects of the psychology of learning.

On the whole it can be said that, in the provincial universities outside of Paris, where the great hospitals are lacking, the problems recently under investigation are those of the older laboratory type which, to distinguish them from questions of abnormal and social psychology, may be termed psycho-physical.