The chief contribution of France to the modem study of religion is in the field of the history of religions, where Paris alone now offers an organized body of instruction and where the work of French scholars has always been preëminent. For example, the scientific study of the Avesta was first seriously attempted by Eugène BURNOUF (1801-1852), who laid the foundations of our present knowledge of Zoroastrianism ("Zendavesta," Paris, 1829-1843; "Commentaire sur le Yaçna," Paris, 1833), following up the explorations of that forerunner of modem scholarship, ANQUETIL DUPERRON. BURNOUF also did pioneering work of the first importance in the study of Indian Buddhism ("Introduction à l'histoire du Buddhisme Indien," Paris, 1844; "Lotus de la bonne loi," Paris, 1852), and developed the study of Hinduism ("Bhâgavata Purâna," vols. 1-3, Paris, 1840-1849).

The succession has been notably carried on by Abel BERGAIGNE, (1838-1888), whose revolutionary study of the Veda destroyed completely the earlier view of the extreme simplicity and antiquity of both literature and religion ("La religion védique d'après les hymnes du Rig-Veda," 3 vols., Paris, 1878-1883); and by James DARMESTETER, with his studies and translation of the Avesta. The entire field of Indian religion has been covered by the erudition of Auguste BARTH ("Quarante ans d'Indianisme," 4 vols., Paris, 1914).

As with all other branches of Egyptology, the study of Egyptian religion owes much to the great name of Gaston MASPERO (1846-1916), whose scattered essays have been collected under the title: "Études de mythologie et d'archéologie égyptiennes" (6 vols., Paris, 1893-), and constitute the most important single contribution to the subject.

Of far different character from all these scholars, but of very great significance for the study of religion, is the genius of Ernest RENAN (1823-1892). His "Histoire du peuple d'Israël" ( vols., Paris, 1887-1894), and his far more important "Histoire des origines du Christianisme" ( vols., Paris, 1863-1882), represent, as does the work of no other man, the reaction of the modern Occidental mind upon its inherited religion, and their contemporary significance may have somewhat overshadowed their undeniably great historical value. The "Vie de Jésus" (1863; subsequently printed as vol. 1 of the "Histoire des origines"), though marred, from the standpoint of present-day taste, by excessive sentimentality, and from that of contemporary scholarship by excessive reliance on the Fourth Gospel, remains a classic.

The study of religion acquired academic standing in France in 1880, when Albert RÉVILLE (1826-1906) was appointed to the new chair of the history of religions at the Collège de France. This recognition, together with the foundation in the same year of the "Revue de l'histoire des religions," still the chief periodical in its field and one of the very best in any field, gave great stimulus to the historical study of religion. Réville himself contributed much to this study ("Histoire des religions," 3 vols., Paris, 1883-1886; Hibbert Lectures, 1884; "Prolégomènes de l'histoire des religions," Paris, 1880, 4th ed., 1886; tr. London, 1884; "Jésus de Nazareth," 2 vols., Paris, 1897).

The instruction offered by a single chair at the Collège de France was amplified in 1886 by the foundation of the Section des Sciences Religieuses at the École Pratique des Hautes Études. Here has been built up undeniably the leading school in the world for the historical study of religion.

But before recounting the opportunity for study there, mention must be made of the work of Émile DURKHEIM, professor of the science of education and sociology, Faculty of Letters, University of Paris. He is the leader of the so-called "sociological school," the most notable recent development in the study of primitive religions. In reaction from the excessive reliance upon the more or less hypothetical psychology of primitive man which marked previous study, Durkheim and his followers emphasize the influence of social environment, and find in totemism the primitive form of religion (Durkheim, "Les formes élémentaires de la vie religieuse," Paris, 1912, tr. New York, 1915). Hubert and Mauss, "Mélanges d'histoire des religions," Paris, 1909, is a collection of studies reprinted from "L 'Année sociologique" (Paris, 1896-), which represents this school both through its exhaustive review of current literature and through important articles by Durkheim and others. Outside the "sociological school," excellent work has also been done by French scholars in the field of "primitive" religions.

Instruction at Paris. (I) École Pratique des Hautes Études: Section des Sciences Religieuses. The work done here is admirably illustrated by the seventeen essays published under the title of "Études de critique et d'histoire" by the Section des Sciences Religieuses in 1896. The subjects of these essays range from Melanesian taboo to the Christology of Paul of Samosata.

At the present time twenty directors of studies give instruction in sixteen departments, of each of which but brief mention can be made. The department, director or directors, courses in 1914-1915, and important publications are given in order.

Religions of uncivilized peoples, Marcel MAUSS.

Primitive religions of Europe; Henri HUBERT: Irish mythology; The sculptured monuments of the religion of the Gauls. (Mauss and Hubert, both vigorous adherents of the sociological school, have collaborated in other publications beside the one already mentioned; see "Essai sur la nature et la fonction du sacrifice," "L'Année sociologique," vol. II, 1899, pp. 29-138).

Religions of pre-Columbian America, Georges RAYNAUD: Civil and religious history of pre-Columbian Central America, Hieratic writings and hieroglyphics of the same.

Religions of the Far East, Marcel GRANET: Feasts of ancient China ("Revue de l'histoire des religions," LXIX, 1914, No. 2, "Programme d'études sur l'ancienne religion chinoise.")

Religions of India,---(1) Sylvain LÉVI ("La science des religions et les religions d'Inde," Paris, 1892; Asanga: Mähãyãna-sütralamkãra, "Exposé de la doctrine du grand vehicule selon le système Yogacãra," 2 vols., Paris, 1907-1911). (2) Alfred FOUCHER: The Chandogya-Upanishad, Buddhist texts.

Assyro-Babylonian religion, Charles FOSSEY: Some Babylonian and Biblical myths ("La magie assyrienne," Paris, 1902; "Manuel d'assyriologie," vol. I, Paris, 1904).

Religions of Egypt, Émile AMÉLINEAU: Ancient texts relative to the religion and morals of Egypt, Book of the Dead, ch. CXLVI ("Essai sur l'évolution historique et philosophique des idées morales dans l'Égypte ancienne," Paris, 1895; "Prolégomènes à l'étude de la religion égyptienne," vol. I, Paris, 1908, vol. II in press; Amélineau has also made notable contributions to the study of Christianity in Egypt: see "Essai sur le gnosticisme égyptien," Paris, 1887; "Littérature chrétienne de l'Egypte grecque et copte.")

Religions of Greece and Rome,---(1) Jules TOUTAIN, secretary of the Section: Cults of the mountains and high places in Greece; Religion and cults in the province of Egypt during the Roman period ("Les cultes païens dans l'empire romain," vols. I-II, Paris, 1907-1911; in "Études de mythologie et d'histoire des religions antiques," Paris, 1909, Toutain appears as a lively critic of the sociological school in their devotion to totemism). (2) A. BERTHELOT.

Religions of Israel and the western Semites, Maurice VERNES, president of the section, and professor in the Collège Libre des sciences sociales: Ancient organization of the clergy and cultus in Israel; Ecciesiastes ("L'histoire des religions, son esprit, sa méthode . . ." Paris, 1887; "Histoire sociale des religions," vol. I, Paris, 1911).

Talmudic and Rabbinic Judaism, Israel LÉVI: Rabbinic commentaries on the Psalms; The religious poems of Juda Halévi (See "Revue des études juives," Paris, 1880-, passim; Lévi has been its editor since its beginning).

Islam and religions of Arabia, Clément HUART: The commentary of Tabari on ch. IV of the Koran; Persian mysticism according to the Mesnevi of Jelâl-ed-Din Rûmî ("Le livre de la création et de l'histoire," text and translation, 5 vols., Paris, 1899-1916; "Histoire des Arabes," 2 vols., Paris, 1912-1913).

Byzantine Christianity, Gabriel MILLET: Byzantine archaeology and religious history (Millet has edited a description of "La collection chrétienne et byzantine des Hautes Études," Paris, 1903).

Christian literature and church history,---(1) Eugène de FAYE: Moral and religious ideas and doctrines in the 3rd century A.D.; Apocryphal acts of Thomas and others ("Clément d'Alexandrie," 2d ed., Paris, 1906; "Études sur les origines des églises de l'âge apostolique," Paris, 1909). (2) Paul MONCEAUX: Documents concerning the soldier-martyrs of the end of the 3rd century; Christian epigraphy of southern Gaul ("Histoire littéraire de l'Afrique chrétienne," 4 vols., Paris, 1901-1912).

History of doctrines and dogmas,-(1) François PICAVET: The persistence of mediaeval philosophic and theological doctrines in the philosophers and theologians of the 17th and 18th centuries; The doctrines and dogmas of Christianity in the councils of the first six centuries ("Esquisse d'une histoire générale et comparée des philosophes médiévales," 2d ed., Paris, 1907; "Essais sur l'histoire générale et comparée des théologies et philosophies médiévales," Paris, 1913). (2) ALPHANDRY.

History of Canon Law, R. GÉNESTAL: Letters of Ivo of Chartres; Relations and conflicts between the ecclestical and the secular jurisdiction ("Revue de l'histoire des religions," LXIX, 1914, No. 1, "L'enseignement du droit canonique").

History of the Catholic Church since the council of Trent, L. LACROIX: History of the Civil Constitution of the Clergy.

Thus, in the Section Religieuse of the École des Hautes Études alone there is such an opportunity for the study of religions as can be found in no other city. But this splendid faculty is supplemented by several other institutions in Paris.

(II) École Pratique des Hautes Études: Section des Sciences Historiques et Philologiques. Egyptian antiquities and philology, Alexandre MORET ("Du caractère religieux de la royauté pharaonique," Paris, 1902; "Le rituel du culte divin journalier en Egypte," Paris, 1902). Ancient history of the Orient, Isidore LÉVY, History of Israel. Semitic languages, Mayer LAMBERT, the Book of Isaiah (" Commentaire sur le Séfer yesira ou livre de la création," Paris, 1891). Byzantine and modern Greek, Jean PSICHARI: St. Mark's gospel.

(III). University of Paris, Faculty of Letters. Antonin DEBIDOUR, professor of Christianity in Modern Times: Religious history of Europe since 1878 ("Histoire des rapports de l'église et de l'état en France de 1789 à 1870," Paris, 1898; "L'église catholique et l'état sous la troisième république," 2 vols., Paris, 1906-1909). History of Christianity in Antiquity and the Middle Ages, Charles GUIGNEBERT, chargé de cours: Christian life in the 4th century; Problems in the Apostolic Age ("Tertullien," Paris, 1902; "Manuel d'histoire ancienne du Christianisme: les origines," Paris, 1906; "Le problème de Jésus," Paris, 1914). History of the religion of the Hebrews, Adolphe LODS, chargé de cours: The beginnings of Hebrew literature; The prophets of Israel and their times ("Le livre d'Hénoch, fragments grecs . . ," Paris, 1892; "La croyance à la vie future et le culte des morts dans l'antiquité israélite," Paris, 1906). History of Christian ideas and Literature of the 16th-9th Centuries, Louis RÉBELLIAU, chargé de cours: Jansenism in France ("Bossuet, historien du protestantisme," Paris, 1892; "Bossuet," in "Les grands écrivains français," Paris, 1900).

(IV). Collège de France. Paul FOUCART, professor of Greek epigraphy and antiquities, ("Des associations religieuses chez les grecs," Paris, 1873; three books on the Eleusinian mysteries, Paris, 1895, 1900, 1914). Alfred LOISY, professor of the history of religions: The epistle to the Galatians, The history of sacrifice; the Abbé Lois won fame by his reply to Harnack's "Das Wesen des Christentums" ("L'évangile et l'église," 3d ed., Paris, 1904); equally important are his study of the Fourth Gospel ("Le quatrième évangile," Paris, 1903) and his two volumes on the Synoptic gospels ("Les évangiles synoptiques," Paris, 1907-1908); his five essays published under the title, "À propos d'histoire des religions" (Paris, 1911), represent his complete acceptance of the comparative method in the study of religion.

Libraries. Beside the many general libraries in Paris, a few special collections should be mentioned: (1) Library of the Société de l'histoire du Protestantisme français, about 60,000 vols, and mss.; (2) Library of the Faculté Libre de Théologie Protestante, about 36,000 vols, on all branches of the study of Christianity; (3) Library of the Alliance Israélite, about 25,000 vols, on Judaism; () Library of the École normale Israélite, about 30,000 vols, on Jewish history and literature; () Library of the École Rabbinique Centrale, about 15,000 vols.

Unique and extremely useful to the student is the Musée Guimet, with its 32,000 vols, and its large collection of religious objects of all kinds, photographs, etc., dealing principally with the religions of the Far East, but including collections for many other religions.

The French have made many important contributions to the development of sociology as a science. The term itself was invented by 'Auguste COMTE, who may be regarded as the founder of systematic sociology. While a young man of about twenty, Comte became associated with SAINT-SIMON, who exercised a decisive influence on the direction which his speculation in the field of social philosophy took. He was in no sense a follower of Saint-Simon; but (to use his own word) Saint-Simon "launched" him by suggesting the two starting-points of what was later developed into the Comtist system first, that political phenomena are as capable of being grouped under laws as other phenomena; and second, that the true destination of philosophy must be social, and the true object of the thinker must be the reorganization of the moral, religious, and political systems. Although he later broke with Saint-Simon on account of the latter's sentimental schemes of social reconstruction, Comte was nevertheless indebted to him for these ideas, and others of less importance, which he developed into a philosophical structure, that has had a profound influence on all subsequent sociological thinking.

Prior to Comte, sociological studies everywhere had been largely fragmentary and polemical. He undertook to discover a principle of unity in society that would mean for sociology what the law of gravitation meant for physics. He was obliged, however, to abandon his quest for such a principle, and was led to emphasize in the development of his social philosophy three stages,---the theological, the metaphysical, and the positive, or scientific. These three stages had been suggested both by Turgot and Saint-Simon, but with Comte they became fundamental. In reality Comte was a system-builder, and it has been said of him that "so well did he do his task that social philosophy since his day has done little more than to fill in his outline and correct and supplement his methods."

Following Comte, the contributions of French writers to the development of sociological thought were meager until after the war of 1870. However, in this interval, COURNOT, in his "Essai sur le fondement de nos connaissances" and in his second volume, "Enchaînement des idées fondamentales," did undertake to build on the physical and biological sciences a new positive science that should treat of social questions. By 1870, Herbert SPENCER had shown the application of the principle of evolution to the development of social institutions, and had particularly emphasized the resemblances between social and biological organisms. Starting with this concept, ESPINAS, in his work, "Les Sociétés animales" (Paris, 1877), endeavored to illustrate and prove this thesis. During the next thirty years, the French scientists originated and developed some of the most widely accepted sociological concepts and principles. The result has been that French scholarship has exercised a dominating influence in stimulating sociological investigation the world over. Some American scholars have expressed their gratitude by saying that they have profited more from the French sociologists than from all others combined.

Without attempting to make an inclusive list, the following may be cited as persons who have made distinct contributions to the development of the subject. Among those who look upon classification as the principal means of understanding social structure and social processes, appear the names of LITTRÉ, DE ROBERTY, and LA COMBE. FOUILLÉE is representative of those who hold to the analogy between social and biological organisms. Closely akin to this group is LE BON, who has interpreted society in terms of a quasi-psychological organism. Gabriel TARDE, in his "Laws of Imitation," represents those who have endeavored to explain social progress in terms of a single principle. The name of Vacher DE LA POUGE would appear among those who endeavor to explain social progress through struggle and survival. Finally, the name of LE PLAY, who founded the "Société internationale des études pratiques d'économie sociale," stands high among those who follow the inductive method in studying social facts and forces.

In addition to the above list, there are those who have made distinct contributions to some specific field of sociological research, or to the method of studying the subject. QUÉTELET should be mentioned in this connection for his efforts to adapt statistical methods to the analysis and evaluation of social forces. Notable also has been the work of LETOURNEAU on the evolution of the family, of laws, of property, etc.; of DUMONT on the effect of depopulation and caste on the objective of sociology; of DURKHEIM, on primitive forms of religious life, on suicide, prohibition of incest, etc.; of HUBERT and MAUSS, on sacrifice and magic; of BOUGLÉ, on the régime of castes; of SIMIAND on the wages of mine workers; and of many others.

Periodicals and Societies. Besides direct contributions to the subject, as indicated above, the French have taken an active part in founding journals and societies devoted to the advancement of sociological study and research.

The most important of the journals are: "La Réforme Sociale," founded by LE PLAY in 1881; "La Science Sociale, suivant la méthode de LE PLAY," edited since 1886 by Ed. DEMOULINS; "Annales de l'Institut International de Sociologie," edited since 1894 under the direction of René WORMS; "Revue internationale de Sociologie," published since 1896; "L 'Année Sociologique," edited since 1899 by E. DURKHEIM.

Among the learned societies in this field, there should be mentioned the "Société d'Économie Sociale," "the Société de Statistique de Paris," and the "Société d'Économie Politique" located at Paris. Anthropological societies are located at Paris, Grenoble, Lyon, and Montpellier.

Instruction in the Universities. The chief center in France for the study of sociology is at Paris. In the Law School of the University of Paris, courses are offered by GIDE on comparative social economy; by GARÇON, on criminal law and comparative penal legislation; by BEAUREGARD, RIST, PERREAU, and TRAUCHY, on political economy. Under the Faculty of Letters, courses are offered by BOUGLÉ on socialism and social and political economy, by DURKHEIM on education and sociology. In the College of France, courses are offered by FUSTER, on the struggle against tuberculosis and housing reforms, and on social insurance; by IZOULET, on social philosophy; by LE CHATELLER, on sociology of the Mussulmans; and by RENARD, on the history of labor.

Outside of Paris, to mention some of those who appear in the faculty lists of the various Colleges and Universities as devoting their entire time to the subject of sociology: at the University of Bordeaux, Gaston RICHARD offers courses in the field of social science, as does also Gabriel MELIN at the University of Nancy. Courses in the kindred subjects of political economy, history of economic thought, criminal law, and industrial legislation are given at the Universities of Aix-Marseille, Bordeaux, Caen, Dijon, Grenoble, Lille, Lyon, Montpellier, Nancy, Poitiers, Rennes, and Toulouse.

It is universally recognized that the French have taken a prominent part in the development of biological science. In the nineteenth century, CUVIER laid the foundations of comparative anatomy and Claude BERNARD gave an immense impetus to experimental physiology, while LAMARCK, DUJARDIN, and PASTEUR were pioneers and innovators in three of the greatest biological achievements of the century. These three outstanding events that so profoundly influenced the course of biological thought are: the announcement of the theory of organic evolution, the discovery of protoplasm, and the establishment of the germ-theory of disease in connection with the science of bacteriology. We may first briefly consider the part played by Frenchmen in launching these three great movements, and then take up matters that are more strictly zoölogical. Inasmuch as Botany receives consideration in a separate chapter, that which follows in this chapter will apply to Zoölogy and its various subdivisions, and, also, to some of those movements which in their broad applications affect the entire field of biological science.

(1) Organic Evolution. The doctrine of organic evolution has produced the greatest intellectual ferment of the past century. It has entered into the framework of all scientific thinking, and has been characterized as "one of the greatest acquisitions of human knowledge." In the establishment of this generalization a French zoölogist, LAMARCK, was the leader. Although the evolutionary point of view had been vaguely suggested at different times, Lamarck (1744-1829) was the first to announce a comprehensive theory of organic evolution that has maintained to the present time a creditable standing in the intellectual world. His immediate predecessors, BUFFON, GOETHE, and Erasmus DARWIN, dealt with the same great theme, but much less rigorously than Lamarck, whose theory was so much more thoroughly thought out that it completely superseded all earlier attempts and marks the beginning of evolutionary thought in its modern sense. It was first announced by Lamarck in 1800 and was somewhat elaborated in 1802, 1803, and 1806. Finally, it was fully expounded in his "Philosophie Zoologique," in 1809, and that year marks the first distinct epoch in the rise of evolutionary thought.

This is not the place to enter into consideration of the principles laid down by Lamarck; but it is a significant circumstance that, a century after being promulgated, his principle of use-inheritance should have been revived, and, under the title of "Neo-Lamarckism," should occupy such a prominent place in the discussions regarding the factors of organic evolution that are being carried on at the present time. This shows better than anything else the position commanded by this French zoölogist in the natural science of the nineteenth century.

After a long lapse of time the field of organic evolution is now represented in Paris by a professorship of organic evolution under the charge of Maurice CAULLERY.

(2) Protoplasm. The consequences that followed from the discovery of protoplasm, and the recognition of its true nature, form another notable scientific advance of the century. Although this substance had been casually observed at intervals from 1755 onwards, its true nature was entirely unrecognized. The turning point came when Félix DUJARDIN (1801-1860) experimented with it and distinguished between it and other forms of matter, such as mucus, gum, gelatine, albumen, etc., with which it had superficial resemblance. He designated it "sarcode," recognized it as the physical substratum of life, and in 1835 announced it as a living jelly endowed with all the properties of life. This idea received elaboration from various sources, and, finally, culminated in the demonstration by Max SCHULTZE (1861) of the essential identity of all living substance in plants and animals and now designated protoplasm. This, in combination with the cell theory of SCHWANN, led to the foundation of biology in its modern sense, and Dujardin ranks as the scientific discoverer of protoplasm.

(3) Germ Theory of Disease. The brilliant work of PASTEUR (1822-1895) belongs to all biology. Starting his scientific career as a chemist, he branched into biological fields, and through his later work came to be recognized as one of the foremost men of biological history. His supreme service was in applying the result of biological investigation to the benefit of mankind. In laying the foundation of micro-parasitology (about 1875), he opened a subject that overlaps the different conventional divisions of biology, and his foundations have been built upon by botanists, zoölogists, and physicians. His investigation gave an immense impulse to the study of pathogenic organisms; and while his researches supplied the foundations of scientific medicine, at the same time they opened investigations in the life-history of micro-organisms that have been so extensively developed by zoölogists.

His studies on the spontaneous generation of life, his observations on the nature of fermentation, on the micro-organisms causing silkworm diseases, and on the floating matter of the air, found applications in physiology and surgery as well as in other departments of biological investigation. These studies also formed the basis from which, by a series of ascending steps, he rose to the study of toxins and antitoxins and to the formation of various serums and vaccines. The establishment of the first Pasteur Institute in Paris, in 1888, served to unify his work and to house the different kinds of biological investigation he had set under way.

The temper of the French people is shown in the popular vote taken in 1907, that placed Pasteur at the head of all their notable men. This is significant of the cordiality extended by the French mind to scientific investigation and to intellectual achievements.

The three scientific achievements spoken of above were of general application to all biological science. We may now turn attention more specifically to the zoölogical side; and, in doing so, it tends to clearness to recognize that some of the subjects of the medical curriculum are zoölogical in nature. Such subjects as anatomy, histology, embryology, and physiology, while they have their practical utility for medical men, are divisions of the zoölogical territory. Likewise, palaeontology, which has been so cultivated by French investigators, belongs to the morphological side of zoölogy.

(4) Comparative Anatomy. The morphological and physiological aspects of animals constitute the foundation of the zoölogist's training. In the early years of the nineteenth century, the influence of CUVIER (1769-1832) was dominant in zoölogy. This French zoölogist and legislator showed great zeal for the study of animal structure; he founded comparative anatomy and vertebrate palaeontology. The influence of LINNAEUS had been to arouse an interest in natural history and in the systematic arrangement of animals; but CUVIER directed attention to more essential features, such as the structure, or organization, of animals, and he turned the current of zoölogical progress into better and more promising channels. In his investigations, he covered the whole field of animal organization, from the lowest to the highest; and, combining his results with what had been accomplished by earlier workers, he established comparative anatomy on broad lines ("Leçons d'anatomie comparée," 1801-05) as an independent branch of natural science. In the meantime he had also engaged in the study of fossil vertebrates, and the publication of his "Recherches sur les ossements fossiles" (1812) founded the science of vertebrate palaeontology.

LAMARCK, his distinguished contemporary, observed the fossil remains of invertebrate animals and, in the early years of the nineteenth century, founded invertebrate palaeontology. It thus appears that the beginnings of comparative anatomy of living animals and the comparative study of fossil remains rest on French foundations.

Simultaneously with the earlier work of Cuvier, the talented BICHAT (1771-1801) essayed a deeper analysis of animal structure. He directed attention especially to the tissues of animals, and thereby prepared the ground for the rise of histology.

In the domain of comparative anatomy, the work of CUVIER was developed in France by Henri MILNE-EDWARDS (1800-1885) and by LACAZE-DUTHIERS (1821-1901). Milne-Edwards' "Leçons sur la physiologie et l'anatomie comparée," in fourteen volumes, 1857-1881, is a mine of information for the comparative anatomist and the physiologist. Lacaze-Duthiers, by numerous researches, by his stimulating influence on students, and by his editorship of the "Archives de Zoölogie expérimentale et générale" did much to further the progress of comparative anatomy.

(5) General Physiology. On the physiological side there has been no investigator that has surpassed Claude BERNARD (1813-1878) either in the profundity of his researches or in his influence on the progress of physiology. Building upon the work of HARVEY, of HALLER, and of Johannes MUELLER, he broadened physiology and gave to it a distinctly modern aspect. His "Introduction à l'étude de la médecine expérimentale" (1865) establishes his rank as the foremost expounder of experimental physiology. Among his notable researches is the discovery of the glycogonic function, or sugar formation of the liver, one of the first and most complete studies of internal secretions. He also discovered the existence of vaso-motor nerves and experimentally observed their influence in regulating the blood supply to different parts of the body. The first comprehensive treatment of general physiology was contained in his now classic "Leçons sur les phénomènes de la vie communs aux animaux et aux végétaux." He gave a tremendous impulse to physiology, and takes rank with the foremost men of all time who have worked in this field.

Lamarck, Claude Bernard, and Pasteur, who may be said to have opened in biology the broad fields of evolution, physiology, and preventive medicine, represent a triumvirate of strength and ability worthy to stand with the limited number of scientific men who have produced results of the highest value to the intellectual world.

On these broad foundations, which were added to by the productive minds of other nations, the French developed a line of university studies that make a strong appeal to the student of zoölogy, and we may now give attention to the opportunities that are open to advanced students of this science in their universities.

Opportunities at the French Universities.--- The French universities are admirably equipped in personnel and material for training biologists for university positions. The incidental advantages are to be placed coordinate with the scientific. To miss the experience of university studies in Paris is to lose "one of the greatest opportunities of the intellectual life." To a penetrating quality of mind the French university professors generally add finish and refinement in the presentation of the background and of the achievement of scientific investigation. The method of lecturing in France is characterized by thoroughness, lucidity, finish, and philosophical grasp; and contact with these excellent models is invaluable in molding the standard of production as well as of literary form and the art of expression. Nicholas Murray Butler, president of Columbia University, in writing of his impressions as a student in Paris, makes this pertinent observation: "For the first time the Latin spirit came to have definite meaning and reality. It was so different from the Anglo-Saxon spirit as revealed in America and so different from the Teutonic spirit as revealed in Berlin. Somehow it seemed subtler and more refined, more delicate and more highly civilized than either."

While the opportunities at Paris are alluring, it is undoubtedly a better plan to begin one's student life in France at one of the provincial universities. One is less diverted, and comes more thoroughly into touch with French life; and there is no lack of men of distinction in the various universities outside of Paris. The zoölogical student might do well to start at Montpellier (DUBOSCQ), a relatively small city, where opportunities for zoölogical instruction are excellent. Bordeaux, Grenoble (LÉGER), Lyon (TESTUT), and Toulouse (LÉCAILLON) also offer especial attractions. The French universities, although not all organized on the same scale of size, are on a parity as regards standards. Some of the universities command a foremost place on account of the presence of men of unusual distinction on their faculties. The student of zoölogy should select his university according to the professors and the facilities for study in the particular phase of zoölogy in which he is most interested. In general, opportunities will be wider in those universities having a medical as well as a scientific faculty.

Zoölogy. To enumerate a complete list of zoölogical courses would be tedious and needless; they are set forth in the various annual catalogues published under the name of "Livret de l'Étudiant." The following is merely an abbreviated list of courses that serves to indicate the range of subjects:

At the Sorbonne, the distinguished professor Yves DELAGE (author of "L'Hérédité et les grands problèmes de la biologie générale," etc.) supervises work in zoölogy, comparative anatomy, and physiology. These zoölogical courses are supplemented by PRUVÔT, HOUSSAY, PERRIER, PEREZ, and others. The complementary work in general physiology is directed by DASTRE (textbook) and general biology is conducted by LE DANTEC. Maurice CAULLERY (exchange professor in 1915-16 at Harvard University) offers courses in embryology and the evolution of organized beings, and also directs a marine station at Wimereux (Pas-de-Calais). Other seaside stations connected with the University of Paris are at Roscoff (DELAGE, Director) and at Banyuls (PRUVÔT, Director).

The Medical Faculty of Paris offers courses in physiology by RICHET ("Dictionnaire de Physiologie") and LANGLOIS; in anatomy under NICOLAS ("Bibliographie anatomique"); in parasitology by BLANCHARD ("Traite de zoologie") and by BRUMPT; in histology by PRENANT (author of a well-known textbook of embryology); and in comparative and experimental embryology by LOISEL.

At the Collège de France, HENNEGUY offers work in comparative and experimental embryology, and at the Laboratoire de Cytologie courses in cytology. General biology is under the charge of GLEY, and histology of the nervous system under NAGOETTE. In addition should be mentioned the laboratory of histology directed by JOLLY.

At the Muséum d'Histoire Naturelle, there are excellent opportunities for the study of particular divisions of zoölogy, as under PERRIER, comparative anatomy; ROULE, fishes, amphibia, and reptiles; JOUBIN, annelids and mollusks; BONNIER, entomology; TROUESSART, birds and mammals; BOULE, palaeontology.

At the Pasteur Institute, organized for complete instruction in bacteriology, serum pathology, etc., are ROUX, the Director; METSCHNIKOFF (author of researches on inflammation, immunity, etc.); and other distinguished scholars.

Zoölogy has also been enriched by French investigations along special lines of interest giving rise to subdivisions of its larger provinces. There are, for illustration, unusual opportunities for the pursuit of protozoölogy and parasitology, of entomology and palaeontology, especially that part of it that relates to the fossil remains of man.

Protozoölogy and Parasilology.--- In regard to unicellular organisms, there has been created the department of protozoölogy with especial reference to pathogenic protozoa, and with this there is often combined the study of internal parasites, forming the subject of parasitology.

In France, F. MESNIL, E. CHATTON, and others, have been leaders. Incidentally, it may be mentioned that until recently there has been associated with the Pasteur Institute LAVERAN, a veteran in the study of pathogenic protozoa, whose demonstration, in 1880, of the plasmodium of malaria marks almost the beginning of work in parasitic protozoölogy. Besides the work at the Pasteur Institute, Raphael BLANCHARD, editor of the "Archives de parasitologie," and member of the medical faculty in Paris, offers courses in parasitology. Microbiology and parasitology are especially provided for at the Universities of Algiers, Montpellier, Nancy, and Poitiers.

Entomology.--- In this field, including life-histories, structure, habits and relation of insects to the organic world the French annals show many notable names. On the structural side, comes to mind the famous monograph of STRAUS-DÜRCKHEIM, and the investigations of Leon DUFOUR. The late J. Henri FABRE (1823-1915) holds high esteem in the study of the behavior of insects. His ten volumes of "Souvenirs entomologiques" are deservedly world-famous. Many of his books have been translated into English and are widely known. As a successor to this interesting naturalist, cultivating entomology in the same spirit with a more modern direction, may be mentioned Pol MARSCHAL at the Institut Agronomique. The courses in entomology by BONNIER have been already indicated. At the University of Rennes is a Station of Entomology, giving especial attention to insects injurious to vegetation.

Zoölogical Palaeontology.---As already stated, the investigation of extinct animals is properly included in zoölogy, since they were merely the forerunners of living animals, although the study is usually pursued under a separate division of science designated Palaeontology. While the whole field of palaeontology is illuminating to zoölogists, especial interest has centered about the fossil remains of man that are already throwing so much light on the question of human lineage. MANOUVRIER, of the Medical faculty, BOULE of the Museum of Natural History, and other Frenchmen are eminent in this line. No richer territory for explorations of prehistoric man have been opened than those of Southwestern France in the region of the Dordogne and the Vézère. Boule's many investigations, including his monograph on "Homo moustierensis," have aroused the greatest interest, and the student of fossil remains of man will find in France excellent opportunities for observation and instruction.(42)

Sundry Subjects. Some special courses of interest to students of zoölogy should be mentioned. Connected with the University of Clermont-Ferrand is a fresh water station devoted chiefly to the biology of rivers and lakes (limnology). Courses in pisciculture are given at Nancy and Toulouse, and at the latter University hydrobiology is especially designated. History of the natural sciences is offered at the University of Lyon, and History of the medical sciences is provided for in the medical faculty of Paris. In addition to the marine stations, mentioned in connection with the University of Paris, are those at Cette, in Hérault (DUBOSCQ, of Montpellier, director); the station of Arcachon, organized for study of the fauna of the Arcachon basin and of the ocean, and connected with the University of Bordeaux; the laboratory of Luc-sur-mer of the University of Caen; the marine laboratory du Portel of the University of Lille; St. Vaast-le-Hougue, connected with the Museum and directed by E. PERRIER; the station of Lamaris-sur-mer, connected with the University of Lyon; and the research station at Endoume, connected with the University of Marseille. L'Institut Océanographique, maintained by Albert the First, Prince of Monaco, possesses an unrivalled laboratory and equipment, and is notable for contributions to the science of oceanography.

Libraries, Museums, Societies, Periodicals. As adjuncts to the pursuit of zoölogy in France are many scientific establishments, such as libraries, museums, scientific societies, and periodicals for the publication of results.

The library facilities of Paris are notable, with the great Bibliothèque Nationale in the lead, possessing more than 3,500,000 volumes and 500,000 pamphlets. The library of the Sorbonne has upwards. of 600,000 volumes and the medical library 17,000- University libraries having from 125,000 to 200,000 volumes exist at Lyon, Lille, Toulouse, Nancy, and Montpellier.

Museums of interest to zoölogists are found at Besançon, Bordeaux, Caen, Lille, Lyon, Montpellier, and of course at Paris.

Scientific societies are highly organized and very active in Paris. Many have their separate publications. Among those of interest to zoölogists may be mentioned: "Société anatomique"; "Association française pour l'avancement des sciences"; "Société de biologie"; "Société entomologique"; "Société de neurologie"; "Société zoologique"; etc.

Among the periodicals for the publication of researches of a zoölogical character are to be noted the following: "Archives de zoologie expérimentale et générale"; "Annales de l'Institut Pasteur"; "Archives d'anatomie microscopique"; "Archives de parasitologie"; "L'Anthropologie"; "Bibliographie anatomique"; "Bulletin scientifique de la France et de la Belgique"; "Revue critique de paléozoologie"; "Revue neurologique"; "Bulletin de l'Institut océanographique"; "Annales de l'Institut océanographique"; etc.

It must be recognized that the French universities afford great opportunities for the training of investigators in zoölogy and all those subjects that are basal to the study of medicine. The distinctive qualities of French instruction are fitted to supply a final polish to the student already trained in the rigorous method of the scientific laboratories. The judgment and the fine feeling of the University professors of France for mental attributes is a stimulus and a direct help in enabling one to improve one's own standards of mental activity and of intellectual production.