There was a time, thanks chiefly to the genius of LAVOISIER when chemistry was in truth a "French science." Now that it has diffused from France over the whole world and become international, the labors of that epoch remain as an inspiration to chemists of every nation. There is hardly a single tendency of the science which is not founded upon the researches of the French.

From the time of LAVOISIER, the development of French chemistry was rapid and broad, because founded upon measurement and established in a very favorable environment. BERTHOLLET, GAY-LUSSAC, and THÉNARD, at the beginning of last century; later CHEVREUL, DUMAS, LAURENT and GERHARDT, WÜRTZ, SAINTE-CLAIRE DEVILLE, and BERTHELOT, together with AMPÈRE and PASTEUR (two great names better known in other fields), contributed a large part of the principles, the theories, and the facts upon which the modern science rests. More recently BERTHELOT (the undisputed head of French chemistry, and perhaps the most versatile of modern chemists), MOISSAN, BECQUEREL, CURIE, and others still alive, have worthily continued the great national tradition.

Dalton's rudimentary atomic theory required the principle of Lavoisier as its necessary foundation. To its development, GAY-LUSSAC contributed the law of volumes and a study of the radical of cyanogen, AMPÈRE an independent formulation of the hypothesis of Avogadro, DUMAS the idea of substitution, LAURENT and GERHARDT the conception of types, PASTEUR the beautiful and subtle theory of molecular asymmetry, LE BEL and GUYE the fundamentals of stereochemistry. To the development of organic chemistry, which served at every later stage as the support of the growing atomic theory, CHEVREUL contributed the explanation of the constitution of the fats; PUMAS, RAOULT, GUYE, WÜRTZ, ST.-GILLES, and BERTHELOT, a great variety of important discoveries. Not less do inorganic chemistry (through the labors of a large number of investigators), crystallography (through the researches of ROMÉ DE LISLE and HAÜY), and physical chemistry (through those of BERTHOLLET and GAY-LUSSAC), take their origin in France. Turning to another field, the beginnings of the science of metabolism are to be found in the researches of LAVOISIER and LAPLACE, while the labors of PASTEUR have revolutionized chemical biology and created chemical pathology. The early development of agricultural chemistry is illustrated by the work of BOUSSINGAULT. And lastly the history of chemistry has profited by many important investigations of BERTHELOT and DUHEM.

University instruction and research in France at the present time may be summarized by mentioning the best-known workers:

Instruction at Paris. I. At the Sorbonne (faculty of sciences): Mme. CURIE, professor of physics, the co-discoverer (with her husband, who died in 1906) of radium, the discoverer of polonium, and the author of a series of investigations in the important field which her own labors, extending Henri BECQUEREL'S discovery of the radio-activity of uranium, have opened to science; Mme. Curie is a Nobel Laureate and (with P. CURIE) the author of a work "Traité de radioactivité" (2 vols., Paris, 1910); LE CHATELIER, professor of chemistry, a physical chemist of great eminence and versatility, author of researches on chemical thermodynamics, on pyrometry, the equilibria of alloys, and the microscopy of alloys; he has published "Recherches expérimentales et théoriques sur les équilibres chimiques," (Paris, 1880), "Introduction à l'étude de la métallurgie," (Paris, 1912), "Leçons sur le carbone, la combustion, les lois chimiques" (Paris, 1908), and "La silice et les silicates"; URBAIN, professor of chemistry, famous especially for his investigations upon the rare earths, their separation and their spectroscopy, author of "Introduction l'étude de la Spectrochimie," (Paris, 1911); HALLER, professor of organic chemistry, a specialist in the investigation of camphor and its derivatives, of alcohol, and of reactions of reduction, author of "Théorie générale des alcools" (Paris, 1879), and "Les récents progrès de la Chimie organique" (3 vols., Paris, 1904-1908); G. BERTRAND (of the Institut Pasteur), professor of biological chemistry, a student of enzymes, especially the oxydases, and of the sugars; CHABRIÉ, professor of applied chemistry; Jean PERRIN, professor of physical chemistry, who has conducted important investigations on the Brownian movement, the theory of colloids, and the molecular kinetic theory, author of "Rayons cathodiques et rayons de Roentgen" (Paris, 1897), "Traité de Chimie physique, Les principes" (Paris, 1903), and "Les atomes" (Paris, 1913).

II. At the Collège de France: MATIGNON, a physical chemist whose researches have been especially in the field of thermochemistry, and of the rare earths; JUNGFLEISCH, an organic chemist who has made important investigations upon tartaric acid and certain derivatives of benzene, (with Berthelot) author of "Traité de Chimie organique" (4th ed., 3 vol., Paris, 1907-1908), and "Leçons sur les méthodes générales de synthèse en chimie organique" (Paris, 1864).

III. At the Muséum d'Histoire Naturelle: MAQUENNE, whose researches extend over the field of the carbohydrates, author of "Les Sucres et leurs principaux dérivés" (Paris, 1900); and ARNAUD.

IV. At the École Supérieure de Pharmacie: BÉHAL, an organic chemist who, among other subjects, has studied unsaturated compounds and creosote, author of "Traité de Chimie organique" (2 vols., Paris, 1909-1911, 3d ed.); GATJTIER, known for various investigations in organic chemistry, in chemical toxicology, and in hygiene, author of "Cours de Chimie organique" (Paris, 1906, 3d ed.), "Ptomaines et leucomaines" (Paris, 1866), and "L'Alimentation et les régimes chez l'homme sain et chez les malades" (Paris, 1904); D. BERTHELOT, author of important researches on the theory of gases, the determination of molecular weights, and photochemistry; MOUREU, a student of the rare gases of the atmosphere, and an eminent organic chemist, author of "Notions fondamentales de Chimie organique" (Paris, 1902); BOURQUELOT, whose researches upon enzymes are well-known, author of "Les Ferments solubles" (Paris, 1896); VILLIERS; GUIMBERT; and LEBEAU.

V. At the École Municipale de Chimie, HANRIOT and COPAUX; at the Faculty of Medicine, DESGREZ; at the École Libre des Hautes Études Scientifiques, HAMONET.

There are also at Paris, chiefly at the Institut Pasteur, a number of others, including BERTRAND, ROUX, MESNIL, DELEZENNE, CHAMBERLAND, MARTIN, MAZÉ, MOUTON, J. DUCLAUX, whose investigations fall in the borderland of chemistry, physiology, pathology, and general biology. Also in Paris, but not connected with the ministry of public instruction, are a considerable number of other chemists of distinction, including LE BEL, G. LEMOINE, SCHLOESING, SCHLOESING FILS, and MÜNTZ.

In 1914-15 the courses in chemistry given in Paris were as follows:

I. Faculty of Sciences. General Physics: Mme. CURIE, "Ions in Gases and the Phenomena of Radioactivity." General Chemistry: LE CHATELIER, "The Properties of the Metals and the General Laws of Chemistry." Chemistry: URBAIN, "Thermochemistry and the Energetics of Chemical Reactions." Organic Chemistry: HALLER, "The Aromatic Series." Physical Chemistry: PERRIN, "General Physical Chemistry." Applied Chemistry: CHABRIÉ, "Fuels, Precious Metals and the Manufacture of Alcohol." Biological Chemistry: BERTRAND, "The Chemical Composition of Living Organisms."

In addition to these courses, numerous conferences were held, as follows: OUVRARD, "Technology;" GUICHARD, "The Study of Original Memoirs in General Chemistry, and the Metalloids and Metals;" V. AUGER, "Inorganic Chemistry;" BLAISE, "Organic Chemistry, General Principles and Study of the Aliphatic Series;" FERNBACH, "Microbes in the Fermentation Industry, and Alcoholic Fermentation."

II. Institut de Chimie Appliquée. In this institute, under the direction of CHABRIÉ, are given certain courses supplementary to those of the faculty of sciences, including elementary qualitative and quantitative analysis by Binet du JASSONNEIX, qualitative organic analysis and organic preparations by FREUNDLER, analysis and preparation of industrial products by MARQUIS, and physical chemistry and electrochemistry by MARIE.

Students, including foreigners, over eighteen years of age are admitted to this school by examination.

III. At the Faculté de Médecine, there are courses on chemistry applied to medicine, conducted by DESGREZ and LABBÉ, together with other courses in physiology, medical physics, hygiene, pharmacology, pathology, etc.

IV. At the École Supérieure de Pharmacie there are the following courses: VILLIERS, qualitative and quantitative analysis; GAUTIER, inorganic chemistry; GRIMBERT, biological chemistry; BÉHAL, organic chemistry; LEBEAU, toxicology; BOURQUELOT, pharmacy; MOUREU, chemical pharmacy.

V. At the Institut Pasteur there is a section of biological chemistry, comprising a laboratory of biological chemistry (affiliated with the faculty of sciences), the service of fermentations, a laboratory of agricultural chemistry, and a laboratory for instruction in biological chemistry. This section of the Institute gives theoretical and practical instruction in the several branches of the subject; to this instruction properly qualified foreigners are admitted.

VI. There are also courses on chemistry and allied subjects at the Collège de France, at the Muséum d'Histoire Naturelle, and in various other places.

VII. The École Pratique des Hautes Études includes a number of chemical laboratories. Qualified students are admitted as members of this school, without regard to age or nationality or formal qualification, into its laboratories, at the pleasure of the laboratory chief. This arrangement makes free the access to nearly all the advanced laboratories of Paris.

Laboratories in the following subjects are associated with this school: Inorganic chemistry at the Sorbonne (Le Chatelier, director); Chemistry, at the École Normale (Lespieau, director); Inorganic Chemistry, at the Collège de France (Matignon, director); Biological Chemistry, at the Institut Pasteur (Roux, director); Organic Chemistry, at the Collège de France (Jungfleisch, director); Organic Chemistry, at the Sorbonne (Hailer, director); Pathological Chemistry, at the Collège de France (Goupil, director).

VIII. The Institute of Hydrology and Climatology includes the following laboratories, among others: Water Analysis, at the Sorbonne (Urbain, director); Physical Chemistry, at the École Supérieure de Pharmacie (Moureu, director).

IX. There are also chemical laboratories in the various institutes and schools of agriculture, horticulture, veterinary medicine, etc., which abound in the capital and its environs, as well as at the École Municipale de Chimie.

Provincial Universities. Opportunities for study and research in chemistry at the other universities are far less varied than at Paris, and in the different institutions are decidedly unequal. In some instances, as at Nancy, every department of the science is represented, and the student has every necessary opportunity at his disposal. But in certain smaller institutions each faculty has but a single chair of chemistry. The subject is, however, always represented in both the faculty of sciences and the faculty (or "École préparatoire") of medicine; it is also represented in certain "Facultés libres;" and there are, of course, in connection with the schools of medicine, various chairs which are chiefly concerned with one or another aspect of the more fundamental science. In some instances, there are also institutes of chemistry and applied chemistry affiliated with the university faculties. It should be distinctly understood that some of the best chemists in France are to be found in the provinces. The following list includes most of the principal chemists of the several provincial universities:

Besançon. Faculty of sciences: L. BOUTROUX, professor of chemistry; TISSIER, professor of applied chemistry.

Bordeaux. Faculty of sciences: GAVON, professor of chemistry; VEZES, professor of inorganic chemistry and director of a technical laboratory; VIROUROUX, known for his researches on alloys; M. DUBOURG, adjunct professor of agricultural chemistry and head of the school of applied chemistry. Faculty of medicine and pharmacy: BLAREZ, professor of chemistry; DENIGÈS, professor of biological chemistry, known for his investigation of a number of interesting reactions.

Caen. Faculty of sciences: BESSON, professor of chemistry. School of medicine: CHRÉTIEN, professor of chemistry.

Clermont. Faculty of sciences: CHAVASTELON, professor of chemistry. School of medicine: HUGUET, professor of chemistry.

Dijon. Faculty of sciences and School of medicine: PIGEON, professor of chemistry. Faculty of sciences: MIETZNER, adjunct professor of industrial and agricultural chemistry.

Grenoble. Faculty of sciences: RECOURA, professor of chemistry, known for his researches in inorganic chemistry; FLUSIN, professor of electrochemistry and electrometallurgy, who is also associated with the Institut Électrotechnique.

Lille. Faculty of sciences: LEMOULT, professor of general chemistry; BUISINE, professor of industrial and agricultural chemistry and director of the institute of chemistry. Among the other chemists in this faculty may be mentioned: Faculty of medicine: LAMBLING, professor of organic chemistry; LESCŒUR, professor of inorganic chemistry and toxicology. There are also at Lille chairs of chemistry in the "Facultés libres" of medicine and sciences.

(1) ALFRED DITTE (1843-1908) (2) PAUL HAUTEFEUILLE (1836-1902) (3) HENRI STE.-CLAIRE DEVILLE (1818-1881)	(4) H. DEBRAY (1827-1888) (5) L. TROOST (6) ALEXANDRE JOLY (1845-1897)
(From a painting in the Sorbonne)

Lyon. Faculty of sciences: BARBIER, professor of. chemistry, an eminent organic chemist, well known for his numerous researches in the determination of constitution and on reduction; VIGNON, professor of industrial and agricultural chemistry; and several others. Faculty of medicine: HUGOUNENQ, professor of medical chemistry, known for his spectroscopical work; MOREL, professor of organic chemistry; and several others.

Marseille. Faculty of sciences: PERDRIX, professor of general chemistry; RIVALS, professor of industrial chemistry. School of medicine: MOITESSIER, professor of medical chemistry.

Montpellier. Faculty of sciences: DE FORCRAND, professor of chemistry, known for his investigation upon heterogeneous equilibrium, thermochemistry, and thermodynamics; OECHSNER DE CONINCK, professor of chemistry, and likewise a well-known investigator; in this faculty there are also several other chemists. Faculty of medicine: VILLE, professor of medical chemistry.

Nancy. Faculty of sciences: MULLER, professor of physical chemistry; PETIT, professor of agricultural chemistry; WAHL, professor of industrial chemistry; GUNTZ, professor of inorganic chemistry and director of the Institut Chimique, known for his researches on lithium and barium; GRIGNARD, professor of organic chemistry, winner of the Nobel prize for his researches upon organomagnesium compounds, author of "Sur les combinations organomagnésiennes mixtes et leurs applications" (Lyon, 1901); MINGUIN, professor of chemistry; GUYOT, professor of the chemistry of dyeing and printing. Faculty of medicine: GARNIER, professor of medical chemistry.

Poitiers. Faculty of sciences: ROUX and BODROUX, professors of chemistry. School of medicine: SAUVAGE, professor of chemistry.

Rennes. Faculty of sciences: BOUZAT, professor of chemistry. School of medicine: LENORMAND and LAURENT, professors of chemistry.

Toulouse. Faculty of sciences: Paul SABATIER, professor of chemistry and director of the institute of chemistry, whose researches upon catalytic organic reductions have been awarded the Nobel prize, author of "La Catalyse en Chimie organique" (Paris, 1913); GIRAN, professor of chemistry; FABRE, professor of agricultural and industrial chemistry and director of the Station Agronomique. Faculty of medicine: ALOY, professor of chemistry. At the Faculté libre of Toulouse, l'abbé SENDERENS, the collaborator with Sabatier in his important researches, is professor of chemistry.

Ever since the famous reports of LA ROCHEFOUCAULD LIANCOURT to the National Assembly in 1790 and 1791, France has been a center of lively interest in the subject of criminalistics. His studies of mendicity, reformatories, poor relief, and the Philadelphia prison system, have been guide-posts for a century. But even before that, VOLTAIRE had popularized the ideas of Beccaria. The tradition was carried on in the nineteenth century by great sociologists like QUÉTELET, who laid the foundations of criminal statistics; by great publicists like DE TOCQUEVILLE, who added a strand to the bonds between France and America by his notable report on the penitentiary system in the United States and its application in France (1833); by great physiologists like LAUVERGNE, who anticipated some of Lombroso's theories; by great men of letters like LAMARTINE, who thought it no condescension to offer to the cause of neglected childhood some of his most masterly eloquence; and by great medical men like MOREL and DESPINE, who blazed new paths in criminal psychiatry. The whole nineteenth century was a period of free trade between these two republics in the field of charities and correction. France borrowed ideas of prison administration. America in return imported both ideas and men for developing our system of caring for the blind, deaf-mutes, feeble-minded, and insane. Recently France once more exemplified the same principle by taking over from us the Juvenile Court. Another illustration may be found in the proposal by TARDE to substitute our system of electrocution for the guillotine as the best method of capital punishment. Finally, it is not too much to say that the American system of the indeterminate sentence and parole is to no small degree the child of French inspiration. For it appears that the first public proclamation of the principle of conditional liberation of prisoners came through a remarkable address of BONNEVILLE DE MARSANGY at Rheims in 1846; this address (translated and published by F. H. Wines in 1866) formed one of the foundation stones of our Elmira Reformatory System.

France, then, offers two fields for the student of ciminalistics: penal administration and criminology proper.

The French School of Criminology. The tendency of the French criminologists has been to lay special emphasis upon the influence of the environment in the causation of crime. Consequently, the so-called "French School" of criminology has frequently been called the "school of the environment." This tendency has been due in part to an attempt to oppose and counteract the tendency of the Italian criminologists to put excessive emphasis upon the influence of pathological and abnormal anatomical and physiological traits in the causation of crime. It has also been due to the important place given in France to the study of law, politics, and the social sciences.

At the same time the notable achievements of the French in physiology, psychology, and anthropology have had their influence upon the development of criminology in that country. A number of careful studies have been made of the physical traits of criminals, and much attention has been given to the psychiatric aspect of crime. Legal medicine has been developed in France perhaps further than in any other country.

Criminologists. Two French criminologists deserve special mention. One of them is the sociologist, the late Gabriel TARDE, who was at first a provincial magistrate, later chief of the Bureau of Statistics, and then professor at the Collège de France in Paris. In all of his criminological writings his principal effort was to analyze the influence of the social factors in the causation of crime. Among his books are "La philosophie pénale" (translated into English), "La criminalité comparée," "Études pénales et sociales," "Les transformations du droit," "Les transformations du pouvoir."

The other is Alexandre LACASSAGNE, professor of legal medicine at the University of Lyon, and founder and editor of the leading criminological journal in France (and perhaps in the world), the "Archives d'Anthropologie criminelle, de Médecine légale, et de Psychologie normale et pathologique." Lacassagne has, in a sense, been the official spokesman of the French school of criminology. He is the leader of a group of criminologists who have been very active in research work and in criminological publication. He has written voluminously on the statistical and other social aspects of crime, while his medico-legal treatises make him one of the leading authorities in the world on the subject of legal medicine.

A. CORRE has published several valuable books containing both general and specialized studies of the causes of crime: "Crime et suicide," "Les criminels," "L'ethnographie criminelle" (with P. Aubry), "Documents de criminologie retrospective." E. LAURENT has made special studies on prisons, and has also written about the general problems of criminology: "Les habitués des prisons de Paris," "Le criminel," "L'anthropologie criminelle et les nouvelles théories du crime." C. PERRIER has made special studies on prisons: "Les criminels," "Emprisonnement et criminalité." H. JOLY has published numerous works containing many statistical data: "Le crime," "La France criminelle," "L'enfance coupable," "La Belgique criminelle," "Problèmes de science criminelle." L. PROAL, a magistrate, has written voluminously and graphically: "Le crime et la peine," "La criminalité politique," "Le crime et le suicide passionnels." J. MAXWELL, a public prosecutor, has written scholarly works on the nature of crime: "Le crime et la société," "Le concept social du crime." G. VIDAL has published voluminous compilations of criminal law and of the data of modern criminological science: "Principes fondamentaux de la pénalité dans les systèmes les plus modernes," "Cours de droit criminel et de science pénitentiaire." J. DALLEMAGNE has prepared several useful little handbooks of the different aspects of criminology: "Les théories de la criminalité," "Les stigmates anatomiques de la criminalité," "Les stigmates biologiques et sociologiques de la criminalité."

Criminology in the Universities. In all of the 1aw schools are given courses on criminal law and procedure. In the medical schools of the universities of Paris, Bordeaux, Lille, Lyon, Montpellier, Nancy, and Toulouse, are given courses on legal medicine. The two universities at which the facilities for studying criminology are sufficiently extensive to require special mention are these of Paris and Lyon.

At the University of Paris, in the law school are given courses on criminal law and penology by GARÇON and LE POITTEVIN There is a special seminary room for students of criminology. A diploma is given for special studies in penal science ("Certificat de science pénale"). In the medical school are given courses in legal medicine by THOINOT and RIBIERRE. There is a laboratory and an institute of legal medicine. To those who qualify is given the diploma of medico-legal expert (médecin légiste). In addition to these medical and legal courses should be noted the courses of DURKHEIM, which correlate closely criminalistics with other social phenomena. In addition to the courses in the University, courses of interest to students of criminology are frequently given in various other educational institutions in Paris. Among these are the Collège de France, École d'Anthropologie, Institut général Psychologique, École libre des Sciences Politiques, École des Hautes Études Sociales, Collège libre des Sciences Sociales.

At the University of Lyon, where LACASSAGNE is the chief figure, special courses in penology are given in the law school. Courses on legal medicine are given in the medical school, and there is a celebrated medico-legal laboratory.

In Paris an extensive criminological literature is to be found in the Bibliothèque Nationale, and in the library of the Law School. The Musée Social also affords some facilities in this line. At the Palais de Justice, where BERTILLON worked out his famous anthropometric system of identification, are the identification bureau and the school for teaching identification methods to the police. The Société Générale des Prisons holds frequent meetings of interest to students of criminology. There are several prisons in or near Paris illustrating different types of prisons, among them the Prison de la Santé, La Petite Roquette, etc.

There are many other penal institutions in France worthy of inspection; perhaps the most famous of these is the Colonie de Mettray, a pioneer in juvenile reformatories.

At the University of Lyon are a museum of legal medicine and a museum of criminal anthropology.

Penal Administration. The large number of "patronages," particularly for the care and protection of neglected and delinquent children in Paris, Lyon, Le Havre, and other large cities, offer opportunity for research into both causative and preventive factors in crime. Nor should the "Tribunaux pour enfants et adolescents" be overlooked. So important has this juvenile court movement become that a special journal, the "Revue des Tribunaux pour Enfants," was founded in 1913. Its collaborators include Senator BÉRENGER (the great philanthropist who fathered the probation system of 1891), Professors CUCHE of Grenoble, GARÇON and LE POITTEVIN of Paris, GARRAUD of Lyon, and such distinguished advocates and judges as ALBANEL, FLORY, LEMERCIER, PRÉVOST, PRUDHOMME, ROBERT, ROLLET, TEUTSCH, and VIDAL-NAQUET. The famous psychological clinic founded by BINET at the University of Paris furnishes opportunities for co-ordinating this study of juvenile delinquency; the so-called "Binet-Simon scale" is the basis for most of the psychopathic testing employed in American courts and institutions.

Finally, the admirable statistical service of both national and municipal bureaus offers to the student unusual opportunities for access to bodies of statistical fact and also for training in statistical method. The French official "Compte général de l'administration de la justice," beginning in 1826, is the longest systematic record available for any country in the world.

Educational theorists have never been lacking in France, as names like RABELAIS, MONTAIGNE, and ROUSSEAU easily indicate. In French educational history during the nineteenth century, names like GUIZOT, DURUY, FERRY, PÉCAUT, GRÉARD, BUISSON, COMPAYRÉ, and LIARD, come most readily to mind. Of these, all save Pécaut and Compayré will go down in history as organizers or administrators. PÉCAUT, of sweet spirit, is the only one who lives pre-eminently as a teacher. COMPAYRÉ enjoys relatively greater renown outside France than in his native country. BUISSON, encyclopedist, administrator, professor in the University of Paris, and for many years an active and influential member of the Chamber of Deputies, still lives in Paris. Buisson worked hand and glove with Jules Ferry in effecting the great reforms of the early '80's which veritably made the present system of primary education in France. LIARD, of eloquent speech and true pedagogical insight, the worthy successor of Gréard as vice-rector of the University of Paris, has long wielded a powerful influence in university and secondary circles at the French capital.

DUPANLOUP, QUINET and MICHELET, Jules SIMON and Michel BRÉAL, MARION, LAVISSE, FOUILLÉE, GUYAU and PÉREZ, Madame PAPE-CARPENTIER and Madame KERGOMARD, BINET and RIBOT (these latter two, psychologists), have all made valuable contributions to the development of educational thought.

But during the past hundred years French educators have been nothing if not practical. Teacher-training has loomed large in French educational life. In support therefor one has only to cite the centenary of her higher normal school, celebrated over two decades ago, and the hundred and sixty or more primary normal schools, scattered through the various departments, to say nothing of the girls' higher normal schools, two higher primary normal schools, as well as other teacher-training institutions---all included within an area less than three-quarters the size of Texas.

In all these training schools, three aims have been constantly kept to the fore: The student should know his subject thoroughly; he should know more than his subject; and he should know how to teach his subject. It may fairly be asserted that during the past generation no country in the world has succeeded better than France in accomplishing this triple purpose in teacher-preparation.

Curricula, courses of study, methods of instruction and organization, textbooks, and innumerable other details are regulated by a central authority, usually at Paris itself, after carefully culling the best ideas from the educational leaders of the country. A system organized on such a basis may make less striking innovations in educational procedure, and may reduce the opportunities for experimentation and scientific work, but at the same time it conduces to more consistent educational progress. In fact, long before the term gained general acceptance, France was following a kind of pedagogical pragmatism in the conduct of its educational affairs. In a word, France has little to offer the foreign student in the way of mere formal study of educational theory as a university subject, much less does it hold out any inducement to the mere seeker after academic distinction.

On the other hand, for the educator of mature mind, able to use his educational theory as a tool, capable of observing, judging, and evaluating educational organization and practice, France offers an almost virgin field for study. With a highly organized educational system in full working order, with practically every type of educational institution in successful operation, France yields to no other country in the world in the excellence of its individual institutions of learning. These are well worth the study of the professional educator, from the University with its traditional faculties, as well as its more modern adjuncts (to say nothing of independent institutions of university grade like the Collège de France, the École des Hautes Études Sociales, the Institut Océanographique, and the like), through its famous old lycées and other types of secondary schools, its various grades of scientific and technical schools, its commercial, industrial, and agricultural schools, all the way down to the modest primary school. Each type or each school has an organization and in many cases a methodology of its own.

In view of the practical trend in French education, the absence of education courses, in the narrow sense of the term, occasions no surprise. In the University of Paris, only one professor, DURKHEIM, lectures in that field, announcing three courses under the general caption: Science of education and sociology. One of these courses is in ethics; one is concerned with the history of pedagogical doctrines; and one is a practical course designed to meet the needs of candidates for the master's degree. What may be called special method courses, however, are very numerous in the faculty of letters. In 1914-15, for example, fourteen of the twenty-five instructors giving courses in history, and four of the five giving courses in geography, announced special work for candidates for the higher certificates or degrees. DURKHEIM, who enjoys an international reputation as a sociologist through his work on "Suicide," was called from Bordeaux some years ago as successor to the late Henri MARION.

Some attention is given to educational theory in the course of the École Normale Supérieure, as well as in several of the other teachers' training schools in the Academy of Paris, but admission to these courses may be obtained only by special dispensation.

Courses in educational theory are likewise few in the provincial universities. Six(10) of the fifteen other universities announce courses in education, viz.: Besançon offers one course in psychology applied to education, and another in practical pedagogy; Dijon and Toulouse give the work under "philosophy and pedagogy"; Grenoble, Lille, and Lyon use the caption "science of education." What has been said of the general nature of the work at Paris is likewise true of that offered at the provincial universities.

Despite the lack of theoretical courses in education in the French universities, there is a wide field for historical research which has scarcely been touched. We in this country know little about the historical development of French institutions. Most of our history of education has come to us from Germany by way of direct translation of German treatises. Barnard's great contributions to our knowledge in this field came from German sources. (It is interesting in passing to note that his promised volume on French educators was never written). Yet the first great university was founded in Paris; the most powerful teaching body the world has ever seen was organized in Paris by Loyola; Ramus, Rollin, and Rolland d'Erceville were all important men in the development of education in France, yet one searches in vain through the index of the most comprehensive text in the history of education published in this country for even a mention of their names. Rashdall in his scholarly "Universities of Europe during the Middle Ages," and Dénifle and Chatelain in their monumental "Chartularium universitatis Parisiensis," have set the standard in their contributions to early university history. For the ensuing six hundred years, save for accounts of the more famous educational theorists, the whole development of education in France is well-nigh inaccessible in English. This offers a great field for research.

Paris is strikingly a city of libraries. Their number is legion, and includes almost every conceivable subject. Many of these libraries contain works bearing upon education in some of its phases. By far the most valuable of the pedagogical libraries, and fortunately the one most readily accessible to the student, is the Bibliothèque de l'Enseignement Public, at the Musée Pédagogique, 41 rue Gay-Lussac. Here one finds a collection of some 75,000 volumes, unfortunately not all catalogued in the most approved fashion. This, however, is one of the great educational libraries of the world, and every facility is afforded for research work; its collection of American school-texts of the mid-nineteenth century is surprisingly large. Other libraries may be consulted for special fields of educational study, notably the library of the Ministry of Commerce and Industry for all material relating to technical (i. e. commercial and industrial) education. The serious and qualified student of educational problems will find every door open and every courtesy extended by the authorities of our sister republic.

The teaching of the fundamental sciences of mathematics, mechanics, physics and chemistry, as well as the application of these sciences to the solution of engineering problems, calls for clear thinking and for rational and logical mental processes. Should we not then turn to France, the land of clear thinking par excellence, for illuminating and inspiring instruction in sciences, both pure and applied? The French mind, to which obscurity is as abhorrent as vacuum is to nature, is peculiarly fitted to grasp and to teach the physical laws of nature and their application, and France has given to the world a rich galaxy of eminent scientific thinkers and discoverers.

It will suffice for our purpose to name a few of the great French engineers whose achievements have made them famous. Such are Ferdinand DE LESSEPS, the builder of the Suez Canal; EIFFEL, who conceived and constructed the tower that bears his name; PERRONNET, PONCELET, HENNEBIQUE and MESNAGER, civil engineers of worldwide reputation; SAUVAGE and COUCHE in railroad engineering; Sadi CARNOT, the discoverer of some of the most fundamental laws of thermodynamics; Etienne LENOIR; Beau DE ROCHAS and Fernand FOREST, who by their pioneer work in the development of the internal combustion engine prepared the way for the automobile and the aeroplane; GRAMME, who developed the dynamo-electric machine, and took an important part in the discovery that dynamo machines are reversible, i.e., capable of being employed as motors; BAUDOT, the designer of a multiplex system, extensively used; Marcel DEPREZ, who was a pioneer in the electric transmission of power; FOUCAULT, who first discovered the losses of power in dynamos due to eddy currents; MASCART; JOUBERT; HOSPITALIER; André BLONDEL and Maurice LE BLANC, all of whom made important contributions to electrical engineering science and standards; the illustrious AMPÈRE and COULOMB, who, though generally classified as physicists, have powerfully contributed through their basic discoveries to the progress of applied electricity; Élie DE BEAUMONT; COMBES; CALLON; HAÜY; Albert DE LAPPARENT; Haton DE LA GOUPILLIÈRE; DE LAUNAY; DAUBRÉE, all mining engineers or geologists who have contributed largely to engineering progress.

In metallurgy may be mentioned SAINTE-CLAIRE DEVILLE, whose laboratory experiments opened the way to much metallurgical progress; RÉAUMUR, who discovered the process by which castings of cast-iron may be made malleable and which today is of great industrial importance; MOISSAN, who in his electric furnace first succeeded in reducing oxides hitherto deemed unreducible, and produced a whole series of new carbides; GRUNER, to whom we owe many of our scientific conceptions of the complex reactions of the iron blast furnace; Pierre MARTIN, who first succeeded in manufacturing steel in an open-hearth furnace; OSMOND, the father of metallography; HÉROULT, who (though ignorant of the work done at the time by the American metallurgist, Hall) invented the electrolytic method of extracting metallic aluminum from its ores, and whose electric furnaces are playing an increasingly important part in the metallurgy of steel; POURCEL, who contributed so much to the early introduction of the Bessemer process on the Continent, and was a pioneer in the manufacture of ferro-manganese; Henri LE CHATELIER, eminent chemist and metallurgist, whose inventions of the thermo-electric pyrometer, and numerous other contributions, have made possible much important progress in the art of treating metals; SCHNEIDER, of the Creusot Steel Works; Léon GUILLET and George CHARPY, productive workers of great talent.

Several of the living engineers mentioned above are professors in some of the French engineering schools (LE CHATELIER, MESNAGER, DE LAUNAY, GUILLET, and others).

Instruction. Applied science in its many ramifications is taught in France in a large number of institutions. In Paris alone not less than fourteen well-known schools are devoted to technical teaching, namely: (1) Conservatoire National des Arts et Métiers, (2) École Nationale Supérieure des Mines, (3) École Nationale des Ponts et Chausés, (4) École Centrale des Arts et Manufactures, () École Professionnelle Supérieure des Postes et Télégraphes, (6) École Spéciale des Travaux Publics, du Bâtiment et de l'Industrie, (7) École Municipale de Physique et de Chimie Industrielles, (8) École Nationale des Arts et Métiers, (9) École Supérieure d'Électricité, (10) École d'Électricité et de Mécanique Industrielles, (11) École Pratique d'Électricité industrielle, (12) École Breguet (électricité et mécanique), (13) École Spéciale de Mécanique et d'Électricité, and (14) École Supérieure d'Aéronautique et de Construction Mécanique. Important schools of Business Administration, of Architecture, of Agriculture, and of Military Engineering, are also located in Paris.

Applied science is likewise part of the teaching of nearly all the provincial universities. These universities are situated at Aix-Marseille, Besançon, Bordeaux, Caen, Clermont, Dijon, Grenoble, Lille, Lyon, Montpellier, Nancy, Poitiers, Rennes, and Toulouse.

Confining our attention to the teaching of Engineering, the most important engineering schools of France are here briefly mentioned. It is believed that each of them will heartily co-operate in any effort tending to facilitate the enrollment of foreign students by removing the obstacles which in the past have stood in the way. The entrance requirements for foreign students here mentioned are those in force before the War. It is not unlikely that, in some instances at least, they may be materially modified.

École Polytechnique (Paris). This ancient and famous institution does not confer engineering degrees, but gives instruction preparatory only to professional studies in engineering or in military science.

The fact that one hundred and twenty-three of its graduates have become members of the Institute of France testifies to the broadness and excellence of its teaching. Of these, eight have become members of the Académie Française (the list includes DE FREYCINET, POINCARÉ, Marcel PRÉVOST); ninety-six, members of the Académie des Sciences (including ARAGO, Élie DE BEAUMONT, CAUCHY, GAY-LUSSAC, DULONG, A. C. BECQUEREL, H. BECQUEREL, REGNAULT, LE CHATELIER, MICHEL LEVY, DE LAPPARENT); seven, members of the Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques; nine, members of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres; and three, members of the Académie des Beaux Arts. Among other illustrious graduates of the École Polytechnique the following may be cited: Auguste LE COMTE, SADI-CARNOT, Admiral COURBET, General DE MIRIBEL, Haton DE LA GOUPILLIÈRE. The School offers a two-year program including instruction in Calculus, Geometry, Mechanics, Physics, Chemistry, Astronomy and Geology, History and Literature, Political and Social Economy, Architecture and drawing.

Foreign students are admitted to the School as day students only and after passing successfully a special entrance examination. Successful completion of the work generally admits students to such schools of applied science as the École Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées, Génie Maritime, etc. Foreign students pay no tuition fees.

École Nationale supérieure des Mines. The École des Mines is one of the oldest in the world, having been founded in 1783. Many of its graduates have become illustrious. The list includes Joseph BERTRAND, RÉSAL, Henri POINCARÉ, BERTHIER, CAILLETET, RIVOT, REGNAULT, DELAUNOY, POTIER, CORNU, DUFRÉNOY, Élie DE BEAUMONT, MALLARD, Marcel BERTRAND, DE LAPPARENT, COMBES, CALLON, GRUNER, Paul HÉROULT, SAUVAGE, COUCHE, LE CHATELIER. Among the many Americans who have in the past studied at the École des Mines, the names of Egleston, who later helped to found the School of Mines of Columbia University, and of Eckley B. Coxe, the eminent mining engineer, are conspicuous.

Admission to the School is by competitive examination in Algebra, Calculus, Trigonometry, Analytical Geometry (plane and solid), Descriptive Geometry, Mechanics, Physics and Chemistry. Students are also admitted as "auditeurs libres" to some of the courses.

The instruction covers a period of three years and includes courses in Mineralogy and Petrography (GRANDJEAN), in Palaeontology (PAINVIN and ZEILLER, both members of the Institute), Geology (TERMIER, member of the Institute, and DE LAUNAY), Mining (LEBRETON), Metallurgy (ANGLES DAURIAC), Analytical Chemistry (CHESNEAU, director of the School), Mechanics (SAUVAGE), Railroad Engineering (LEGRAIN, General Manager of the State Railroads), Resistance of Materials (HUMBERT), Industrial Electricity (LENARD), Mining Laws (AQUILLON), Industrial Economics (PELLETAN).

The library contains over 50,000 books, pamphlets or maps and receives over 300 periodical publications. Its collections of mineralogy (over 30,000 specimens), palaeontology, and geology are famous and occupy 50 large rooms. Fully equipped laboratories for Chemistry, Electricity, Mechanics, Mineralogy and Petrography, Metallurgy, Physics, and Surveying are maintained.

The degree conferred on foreign students is that of "Ingénieur Civil des Mines," or else a certificate of study. The tuition fee is 1000 francs per year.

École Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées (Paris). This important school was founded in 1747 and its reputation is universal. Admission is by competitive examination in Algebra, Trigonometry, Analytical Geometry (plane and solid), Descriptive Geometry, Mechanics, Physics, Chemistry, Free Hand Drawing. Students are also admitted as visitors to some of the courses.

The School offers a two-year program including instruction in Applied Mechanics (PIGEAUD, MOURET), Construction (LAUNAY), Road Building (LIMASSET), Railroading (FOUAN), Applied Electricity (Guillebot DE NERVILLE), Mineralogy and Geology (DE LAUNAY), Architecture (BONNET), Law (CHAREYRE, ROMIEU), Materials of Construction and Reinforced Concrete (MESNAGER), Metal Bridges (RÉSAL), Masonry Bridges (SÉJOURNÉ), Naval Works (DE JOLY), Internal Navigation (DUSUZEAU), Steam Engines and other Thermal Engines (WALCKENAER), Hydraulics (IMBEAUX), Political Economy (COLSON).

The School confers the degree of "Ingénieur des Constructions Civiles" or a certificate of study. There is no tuition fee.

École d'Application du Génie Maritime (Paris). Admission to this School is by competitive examination, including Calculus, Descriptive Geometry, Mechanics, Drawing, Physics, and Chemistry. Properly qualified foreign students may be admitted without examination. Visitors ("auditeurs libres") are also permitted to attend some of the courses.

A two-year course is offered, consisting of winter sessions in Paris and of summer work in arsenals and ship yards. The instruction, conducted by officers of the Génie Maritime and by engineers of Naval Artillery, includes courses in Ship Construction, Armament and Protection, Applied Mechanics, Steam Engines, Boilers, Metallurgy, Technology (Tools and Materials), Aeronautics, Naval Architecture, Land Construction, Torpedoes, Administration and Bookkeeping, Submarines, Applied Electricity, Resistance of Materials, Naval Artillery, Graphic Problems and Projects.

The school confers the degree of "Ingénieur Civil des Constructions navales" or a certificate of study. The cost of instruction to foreign students is about 1800 francs per year.

École Supérieure d'Électricité (Paris). Admission to this important School is by competitive examination, including Mathematics (Algebra, plane analytical Geometry, Calculus), general and applied Mechanics, Physics, Chemistry, Electricity, and Resistance of Materials. Properly qualified students may be excused from the entrance examination. Visitors ("auditeurs libres") are also admitted. The studies, which last one year, include instruction in Applied Electricity (construction, generation, transformation, transmission, utilization, thermal and chemical application, tests and measurements), in Theoretical Electricity, and in Telegraphy and Telephony. Visits and projects are part of the work. The School also offers a three months' course in Wireless Telegraphy.

The degree conferred is that of "Ingénieur Électricien."

The tuition fee is 1000 francs for the regular course and 750 francs for the course in Wireless Telegraphy.

École Centrale des Arts et Manufactures (Paris). Admission to the School is by competitive examination in Mathematics, Physics, and Chemistry. It offers a three-year program, including instruction in Calculus, Descriptive Geometry, Mineralogy and Geology, Architecture and Civil Construction, Hygiene, Drawing, Public Works, Mining Methods, Metallurgy (general and specific), Construction of Machinery, Mechanics (theoretical and applied), Industrial Application of Inorganic and Organic Chemistry, Railroading, Physics (general and industrial), Analytical Chemistry, Industrial Electricity, Resistance of Materials, Engineering of Construction, Thermal Engines, Industrial Law.

The School confers the degree of "Ingénieur des Arts et Manufactures," or else a certificate of study. The tuition fee is 900 francs the first year and 1000 francs for each of the following years.

Institut Chimique de l'Université de Nancy (Nancy; Meurthe et Moselle). Students are admitted on the presentation of certificates from preparatory schools of good standing (lycées, high schools, etc.) or by examination in mathematics, physics, chemistry, etc. Two years are devoted to the study of theoretical and practical chemistry and one year to specialized work. The degree of "Ingénieur Chimiste" is conferred. The tuition is 650 francs per year.

The development of Geography as a university study is of about as recent a date in France as in other European countries. Cartography at home and exploration abroad have flourished longer.

The maps of France, published on various scales and styles by the Service Géographique de l'Armée and other official departments, are of unusual excellence; the contoured sheets for Algeria on a scale of 1:50,000 are admirable specimens of topographic art. But (as is generally the case) the topographers who have produced these fine maps have left to others the development of a scientific method of accurately and intelligibly describing in words the facts of form and distribution which maps portray graphically. A partial exception to this statement is found in General BERTHAUT'S "Topologie" (1909-10), in which many beautiful examples of topographic work are reproduced, but the text savors of an earlier century than the 20th.

French explorers of oceans and continents have deservedly gained renown for bringing to light the existence of previously unknown lands and waters; but, like most other explorers, those of France have not contributed greatly to the systematic aspects of modern geographical science. The great SOCIÉTÉ DE GÉOGRAPHIE of Paris gives opportunity for study in its extensive library, supports exploration with its funds, publishes the results in its journal, "La GÉOGRAPHIE," and rewards them with its medals. But, like nearly all other large geographical societies, its activities are more associated with popularization than with research; and the same is true of several smaller geographical societies elsewhere in France. Certain societies of commercial geography have also been founded, but their publications seldom contain anything more than an elementary geographical basis for studies that are largely of a statistical or economical nature.

The great compilers, MALTE-BRUN early in the 19th century and RECLUS near its close, each produced a "Géographie universelle" in many volumes that will endure as monuments to the authors' patience and erudition; but these works were completed before the philosophy of evolution, inorganic and organic, had given to geography its modern scientific spirit, and they no longer serve as models for geographic treatment.

In more recent years the higher study of geography in France has advanced in two directions: first in physical geography, under the inspiration of DE LA NOÉ and DE MARGERIE, whose "Formes du Terrain" (1888) revealed new lines of research in an old subject, and later under the leadership of the eminent geologist, DE LAPPARENT, whose "Leçons de géographie physique" (1896) attracted renewed attention to the modern aspects of the study of land forms; secondly in descriptive geography, under the leadership of VIDAL DE LA BLACHE, whose earlier training was in history. In the first of these directions, BARRÉ has prepared an excellent local work, "L'architecture du sol de la France" (1903), and DE MARTONNE has produced a systematic work, "Traité de Géographie physique" (1907, 1913), which is today recognized as of standard value. But it is in the second direction that geography has recently flourished in France; for, although its leader has now retired from teaching, nearly all the more notable modern geographical studies in France are the work of his pupils, or of his pupils' pupils, a goodly number of whom have become professors of geography in French universities. Among the recent works thus and otherwise inspired the following deserve especial mention: SCHIRMER, "Le Sahara" (1893), DELEBECQUE, "Les lacs français" (1898), BRUNHES, "L'irrigation" (1902), DE MARTONNE, "La Valachie" (1902), BERNARD and LACROIX, "L'évolution du nomadisme en Algérie" (1906), BLANCHARD, "La Flandre" (1906), VALLAUX, "La Basse-Bretagne" (1907), VACHER, "Le Berry" (1908), PASSERAT, "Les plaines du Poitou" (19o9), DEMANGEON, "Le relief du Limousin" (1910), LEVAINVILLE, "Rouen" (1913), SORRE, "Les Pyrenees méditerranéennes" (1913). The "Annales de Géographie," founded in 1893 by VIDAL DE LA BLACHE and still edited by him in collaboration with DE MARGERIE and GALLOIS, is an important medium of scientific publication; its "Bibliographie annuelle," compiled by RAVENEAU and many collaborators, is an indispensable aid in serious study.

Instruction. The French School of Geography is today, since the retirement of its founder, chiefly in the hands of his former pupils who are now professors in various universities. While their work is sufficiently marked by individuality, it nevertheless bears the imprint of their master, whose attractive but not always specific style may be studied in his noted volume, "La France, Tableau géographique" (1903, 1908), prepared as an introduction to Lavisse's History of France. He has been engaged for several years past, in conjunction with a number of his disciples, on a regional geography of the world, the volumes of which are awaited with interest.

The leading characteristic of this school is a devoted studiousness, the natural result of the severe discipline of the "agrégation," or competitive examination, held in Paris, and based on a specified course of advanced geographical study, which must be taken by all candidates for teaching positions in France and in which only as many candidates are passed as are needed to fill vacant positions. During the assiduous preparation for this examination and in the preparation of the thesis which accompanies it, every pertinent element is gathered from geology, geography, and biology, and above all from history, with the intent of finally combining all these elements in regional descriptions. The product of this intent is, in the opinion of some critics, too geological at its beginning, too historical at its end, and not systematic enough through much of its course to represent the finest geographical ideal. But it is still an admirable product, worthy of attentive examination by American students, even though its imitation in this country may be difficult because our historical records are for the most part so brief and scanty,---to say nothing of its being unnecessary because at present the demand for geographical scholarship is in most of our universities so small.

It is naturally in Paris and at the Sorbonne (as that part of the University of Paris is called which is directed by the Faculties of Letters and of Sciences) that the French school of Geography is best exemplified. Here the courses and laboratories in general geography, developed under the Faculty of Letters by VIDAL DE LA BLACHE, and under the Faculty of Sciences by VÉLAIN (courses and laboratories which it is to be hoped will be united and administered under a single geographical institute), are now, since the retirement of their seniors, carried on by GALLOIS, DEMANGEON, DE MARTONNE, and their associates. In more or less close association with the Sorbonne are various additional establishments: the Collège de France, where BRUNHES lectures on human geography; the Institut océanographique, founded by the Prince of Monaco, where lectures and conferences are held; and other institutions where subjects allied to geography may be pursued. Inter-university excursions, ordinarily held in the spring, give practical but brief experience in field study.

The fourteen provincial universities of France offer less expanded opportunity for geographical study than is found in Paris, yet in many of them certain lines of work are well developed and may be pursued to much advantage. Thus, FLAHAULT has made a specialty of plant geography at Montpellier, and BLANCHARD of alpine geography at Grenoble. The situation of these universities necessarily exercises much influence over the subdivisions of geography which they can best illustrate. Thus, commercial and colonial geography have exceptional encouragement at Bordeaux; features of volcanic origin are best exemplified at Clermont-Ferrand in the classic region of Auvergne; unusually varied opportunity for the study of cuestas in their influence on population and history is afforded in the neighborhood of Nancy; coastal features of large variety and practical importance in maritime relations are found near Rennes. An advantage which students may enjoy at the smaller universities is the close personal association with their professors, which counts for so much in advanced work.

The part which France has played in the long history of geological science is a particularly distinguished one. In the controversial period of rival schools of geology, which preceded that of careful observation, she was fortunate in not being drawn within the charmed circle of the followers of Werner at Freiberg, where the sedimentary origin of basalt was proclaimed and hotly defended. It was in France, through the work of GUETTARD and DEMAREST, that this colossal error, which held back for decades the development of the science, was finally overthrown. As regards the other dominant error which characterized eighteenth century geology---the elevation crater idea of the Prussian geologist von Buch France was less fortunate, for one of her most brilliant geologists, Élie DE BEAUMONT, fell under the spell of this delusion.

When, with the dawn of the nineteenth century, geology developed as an observational science, largely in the fields of stratigraphy and palaeontology, the contributions of French geologists were noteworthy. It is necessary only to mention the names of CUVIER, LAMARCK, d'ARCHIAC, D'ORBIGNY, and BRONGNIART, to confirm this statement. CUVIER's famous "Discours sur les révolutions de la surface du globe et sur les changements qu'elles ont produits dans le règne animal," which appeared in 1822, supplies one of the great landmarks in the development of the science. The foundations of the relatively modern science of physiographical geology had already been laid in the eighteenth century, through studies by DEMAREST in the valleys of the Auvergne of Central France,--- studies which have been ably extended in our own day by DE LA NOÉ, DE MARGERIE, and DE MARTONNE. The brilliant DE BEAUMONT, in collaboration with DUTRENOY, gave a great impetus to geological mapping, at the time in its infancy, by the preparation of the geological map of France begun in 1825.

Earthquake study necessarily began with the collection of facts connected with the great earthquakes of the past. These data, as assembled by Alexis PERREY of Dijon between the years 1841 and 1874, constitute a great reservoir from which all later investigations have drawn their supplies. Today the greatest systematizer in seismology and its leading authority is a Frenchman, Count DE MONTESSUS DE BALLORE. Within the field of oceanography, studies of the most fundamental character dealing with the deposits upon the sea bottom have been carried out by THOULET. In the field of structural geology, it is today generally recognized that the key to the solution of that most complex problem, the structure of the Alps, was supplied by BERTRAND, upon the basis of studies made in the north of France. His other investigations covered a very wide field and were of prime importance. Experiments to reproduce rock structures in the laboratory have had their origin and development very largely in France; the leading part (if we except the most recent work by refined methods) having been taken by DAUBRÉ. A reservoir of data upon existing glaciers is the "Matériaux pour l'étude des glaciers," by DOLLFUS-AUSSET, which appeared in thirteen volumes between 1864 and 1870. The most noteworthy of general treatises upon geology, in the French language, are those of DE LAPPARENT (in five volumes) and of HAUG (in two volumes).

University Studies of Today. For students purposing to pursue geological studies in France, by far the best opportunities are offered in Paris by the University, the Collège de France, and the École Supérieure des Mines, supplemented as they are by the almost unrivaled collection of museums and libraries to be found in the city. Outside Paris, the best opportunities are realized at the provincial universities of Grenoble, Lille, and at Clermont, either because of exceptional strength of the geological staff in the University or because of special facilities for study in the field. Unlike other departments, the laboratory of geologists is out of doors, and opportunities for the investigation of definite problems in the field may well be a determining factor in the choice of the university, provided other conditions are met. At Grenoble exceptional facilities are found for structural, stratigraphical, and palaeontological studies, and for those upon existing glaciers as well. The University of Clermont is situated within a classic region of recent though extinct volcanoes, and offers numerous problems in vulcanology. The University of Lille is at the heart of the great coal mining region of the north of France, and special attention is there given to problems of economic geology, to structural geology, and, because of the preëminence of the head of the department in the field of the crystalline rocks, to pre-Cambrian geology as well.

The attention which for the first time in recent years has been devoted to the geology of the desert areas makes it desirable to draw attention to the unique opportunities offered by the University of Algiers for the study of such conditions. Situated on the borders of the greatest of all deserts, and connected by railways with different sections of the desert area, a student may work under the guidance of specialists who have already acquired a wide reputation by their studies of arid conditions.

Paris. At the University of Paris the work in geology is in charge of Emile HAUG, whose major investigations have dealt principally with the great problems of sedimentation in connection with areas of denudation. His principal monograph upon this subject is "Les géosynclinaux et les aires continentales, Contributions à l'étude des transgressions et des régressions marines," published in 1900. He has also contributed to the study of the great nappes of the Alps and his "Traité de géologie" (the second volume appeared in 1911) is the most modern of geological treatises printed in the French language. Physical geography is in charge of Emmanuel DE MARTONNE, well-known for his studies in the Carpathians and Roumania, and for his "Traité de géographie physique," which was published in 1909 and is the best general treatise upon the subject in any language.

At the Collège de France, the teaching of geology is conducted by Lucien CAYEUX, well-known for his studies upon the microscopical structure of sediments.

At the École Supérieure des Mines, geology is in charge of Pierre TERMIER, who is also the Chief Engineer of Mines and Director of the Service de la Carte Géologique. Outside the special field of mining, TERMIER has acquired distinction from his investigation of the problems of Alpine structure.

Louis DE LAUNAY, well-known for his studies of ground water and ore deposition, is in charge of geology at the École Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées.

At the École des Hautes Études Scientifiques of the Institut Catholique, Jean BOUSSAC, known for his studies of Alpine structure, occupies the chair of geology.

A number of geologists of distinction, not connected directly with any of the French schools, are resident in Paris and actively engaged in geological studies; these include Em. DE MARGERIE, former president of the Société Géologique, translator of Suess' "Das Antlitz der Erde," and possessing perhaps the widest knowledge of geological literature of any one now living; Alfred LACROIX, professor of Mineralogy at the Muséum d'Histoire Naturelle, and one of the greatest authorities on volcanoes; Stanislas MEUNIER, in charge of geology at the same institution, known particularly for his studies upon meteorites; Charles RABOT, a leading authority upon glaciers and lately president of the International Commission on Glaciers, editor of "La Géographie"; Léon CAREZ, the principal collaborator in the French Geological Service; Commandant O. BARRA, an authority on tectonic geology; and General BERTHAUT, author of a two-volume work of great value upon topography in relation to physiography. Some of these (such as LACROIX and MEUNIER) give courses of lectures open to students.

Supplementary to the geological collections in laboratories of the University and other higher institutions of learning, there are the great collections of the Muséum d'Histoire Naturelle, situated in the Jardin des Plantes. Of libraries of special interest to geologists, one of the best is located in this museum, and in addition there are the large geological libraries of the Société Géologique de France and that of the French Academy.

The principal geological periodicals published in Paris are the "Bulletin" and "Mémoires" of the Société Géologique de France, and "Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des Sciences," "Annales des Mines," "Bulletin des Services de la Carte géologique de la France et des Topographies souterraines," "Annales de Géographie," "La Géographie," "Annales de l'Institut Océanographique."

The Provinces. As already stated, while undoubtedly the best opportunities for geological study are to be found in Paris, there are often special reasons why the work of a graduate student may best be carried on at one of the universities of the provinces, which offer a wide variety of geological problems in the rocks of their surroundings. Among professors in charge of the work in geology at the provincial universities are the following: Lille: Charles BARROIS, a leading authority upon the geology of the pre-Cambrian rocks, and particularly those of Brittany; Grenoble: W. KILIAN, an authority upon the stratigraphy and palaeontology of the Cretaceous formation; Dijon: Louis COLLOT; Marseille: Gaston VASSEUR, whose field of study has been the Tertiary of Western France; Nancy (where there is a School of Geological Engineering): René NICKLÈS, an authority upon the geology of Southeastern Spain; Clermont-Ferrand: Ph. GLANGEAUD, whose special field has been the volcanic region of Central France; Lyon: Charles DEPÉRET, an authority upon Miocene geology, with whom is associated Frédéric ROMAN in the field of agricultural geology; Bordeaux: Emmanuel FALLOT; Toulouse: Charles JACOB, in the field of Alpine geology and glacial geology; Caen: Alexandre BIGOT, an authority upon the crystalline rocks of Brittany; Poitiers: Jules WELSCH, who has given much attention to the tectonic geology of Western France; Rennes: Jean SEUNES; Besançon: Eugène FOURNIER, tectonic geology, hydrology, and speleology; Montpellier: A. DELAGE.

At the University of Algiers, where such unexcelled facilities are offered for the study of desert geology, there is a strong staff of specialists in this field, and exceptional opportunities are afforded for the study of Arabic and for the investigation of economic problems connected with the exploitation of deserts. The head of the geological department, and Adjunct Director of the Service de la Carte géologique de l'Algérie, is Émile FICHEUR. He is assisted by Arbel BRIVES, who is a collaborator upon the survey as well as a professor in the geological department. Georges FLAMAND occupies the chair of physical geography of the Sahara, and enjoys a wide reputation for his explorations in the desert. In addition the University of Algiers supports a professor of the geography of Africa in the person of Emile-Félix GAUTIER, deservedly well-known for many important works in this field. Inasmuch as the geology of deserts is a subject likely to occupy an important place in the discussions of geologists in the near future, the advantages of Algiers as a place of study may well be emphasized.