In the fields of Mineralogy and Petrology, French scientists have made contributions of inestimable value, and in some parts of these fields they have opened the way and taken a predominant part in the work of detailed investigation as well as exploration.

Knowledge of minerals is based upon a study of them in crystal form; the science of crystals was founded and built in France; as truly stated by Mallard: "Crystallography was thus created as a whole by the genius of HAÜY, and his successors have scarcely had to do more than perfect the details of his work. No other branch of human knowledge is, to the same extent, the work of one man." Later, DELAFOSE and BRAVAIS developed the theory of a mesh or space-lattice of physical units as the structure of crystals --- a theory completely established, within the past two years, by means of studies with X-rays. FIZEAU and LE CHATELIER made numerous investigations of the expansion of crystals upon heating, some of which have had an important bearing upon questions of the condition of formation, especially of quartzose rocks.

An excellent method of chemical analysis of silicate minerals was early developed by STE.-CLAIRE-DEVILLE. Spectral analysis of zinc blende from the Pyrenees led BOISBAUDRAN to the discovery of gallium. Radium was discovered by the CURIES as a result of careful investigation of pitchblende and other uranium-bearing minerals. FRIEDEL and GRANDJEAN have recently studied the nature of the water in zeolites, and have shown that it can be expelled and reabsorbed or replaced by other liquids or gases without destroying or changing the nature of the crystal structure.

The methods of synthetic mineralogy were developed in France. FOUQUÉ and MICHEL-LÉVY reproduced all the minerals of volcanic rocks, except quartz and orthoclase, by means of crystallization from dry fusion. By the same process, GAUDÏN and VERNEUIL produced ruby and sapphire, the manufacture of which has now become an important industry. Fusion in the presence of mineralizers is a method which has yielded important results in the hands of several experimenters, notably DEVILLE, HAUTEFEUILLE, BOURGEOIS, GORGEU, FRÉMY, and EBELMEN. Finally, several minerals have been produced in the presence of water (or water-vapor) heated in a sealed tube, by DAUBRÉE, SARASIN, and FRIEDEL.

The minerals of metalliferous veins and ore deposits are of much practical importance; BEAUMONT was the first to present a complete and rational theory to explain the origin of such deposits; many of the classic experiments of DAUBRÉE were devised to shed light on the same problem. DE LAUNAY has continued this work. and prepared scientific descriptions of the ores of the world.

Rocks are composed of minerals; therefore a knowledge of minerals is essential to an understanding of rocks, and the science of mineralogy was necessarily developed before that of petrology. In rocks, minerals are usually present in very small crystals; therefore rocks are studied chiefly by microscopic methods. FOUQUÉ and MICHEL-LÉVY introduced in France these methods, which are based on optical properties first deduced by FRESNEL. DES CLOIZEAUX applied the methods to the study of minerals as such, and thus supplied the fundamental data necessary for petrographic work. MICHEL-LÉVY and LACROIX continued the determination of data, developing at the same time additional methods of using optical properties in identifying minerals.

FOUQUÉ and MICHEL-LÉVY proposed a classification of igneous rocks, based on mineral composition and on texture, which is the foundation of the classification now in use in France, and has contributed much to classifications in use in other countries. MICHEL-LÉVY emphasized the importance of mineralizing agents in processes of differentiation as well as in those of contact metamorphism.

LACROIX has shown that contact exomorphism consists not only in physical changes, but also includes chemical transformations due to introduction of material of magmatic origin. He has also described evidence to show that granitic magmas may be changed to diorites, etc., by contact endomorphism. LACROIX has also written a monographic work on the "Mineralogy of France," in which he has emphasized the varying modes of occurrence and of alteration of minerals in order to fix the mode of origin and conditions of stability. In a similar way he has studied the lavas of Mont Pelée from all points of view, in order to draw general conclusions concerning their origin.

University Studies of Today. Paris. At the present time the leading mineralogist and petrologist in France is Alfred LACROIX, who succeeded DES CLOIZEAUX as professor of mineralogy at the Muséum d'Histoire Naturelle in 1893. He has published a five-volume work on "La minéralogie de France," which is a standard treatise on the optical properties and modes of occurrence of minerals; a volume on "Les enclaves des roches volcaniques;" two volumes on volcanic activity at Vesuvius and Mont Pelée; and numerous important studies of minerals, of contact metamorphism, of descriptive petrography, and of rock alteration. He offers courses of lectures on mineralogy; but the student prizes especially the opportunity to study in his laboratories under his inspiring guidance. At the same institution Stanislas MEUNIER holds the chair of geology; he is the author of an important work on "Les méthodes de synthèse en minéralogie." At the University of Paris, Louis GENTIL, who has described petrographically certain districts in Algeria, offers excellent courses in general petrography.

At the Collège de France, the eminent crystallographer, F. WALLERANT, is in charge of the work in mineralogy; he has published important contributions to crystal theory. Here, also, is L. CAYEUX, who is an authority in the relatively neglected field of the petrography of sedimentary rocks; recently he has extended his studies to include all types of iron ores.

At the École des Mines is the well known mineralogist, TERMIER, who has been a close student of individual minerals and of the crystalline schists of the Alps. L. DE LAUNAY offers courses at this school and also at the École des Ponts et Chaussées; he has published several important volumes treating of the origin of the minerals in ore deposits.

LE CHATELIER, URBAIN, and MATIGNON are primarily chemists, but they have made various contributions to mineralogy, especially from the chemical point of view. LE CHATELIER and URBAIN are at the University of Paris; MATIGNON is at the Collège de France.

Outside of Paris. One of the most prominent mineralogists is G. FRIEDEL at the École des Mines of Saint Étienne at Lyon, who has done notable experimental work with the zeolites, and has published works on crystallography. At the University of Montpellier, mineralogy is in charge of CURIE, who studied the eruptive rocks of Algeria, and has been associated in some work on piezo-electricity with the discoverer of radium. At the University of Nancy, THOULET has made studies of the physical and chemical properties of microscopic minerals. Joseph CARALP is professor of mineralogy at the University of Toulouse. At Nancy, the Institute of Geology trains mining engineers.

From a petrographic point of view the University of Lille is the most important institution outside of Paris. It is here that BARROIS is professor of geology, and OFFRET professor of mineralogy. BARROIS has described in detail the contact metamorphism of sandstones, shales, and limestones, and OFFRET has made petrographic studies of certain rocks and minerals.

In the history of palaeontology there is no nation so rich in memories as France, none held in so great regard by students --- in almost reverential regard by the student of extinct vertebrates especially, for there his science was born a century ago, and CUVIER was its father. The world's greatest scientist of his time, and one of the greatest naturalists of all time, CUVIER first taught the real meaning of fossils, and especially vertebrate fossils. With him began a new epoch in all palaeontology, one based upon zoölogy; and fossils ceased to be mere curiosities in the rocks, or the mere tools of geology.

The great Sir Richard OWEN of England was his student, but all felt the effects of CUVIER'S brilliant mind. DE BLAINVILLE, DESLONGCHAMPS, FILHOL, GERVAIS, MILNE-EDWARDS, SAUVAGE, LARTET, and GAUDRY are among the many Frenchmen of the nineteenth century who won enduring fame wherever vertebrate palaeontology is studied; and among those of the present day, DEPÉRET, BOULE, PRIEM, LERICHE, and THEVENIN, are some of those whose reputations have extended worldwide.

Nor is invertebrate palaeontology any less indebted to France of the nineteenth, and even the eighteenth centuries. Beginning with the famous BUFFON, who for more than a century was a delight to children everywhere, the most noted of all, perhaps, though not exclusively a palaeontologist, was LAMARCK, who found in the "animaux sans vertèbres," both living and fossil, the foundations for his famous theories of development, theories which are even more vigorously discussed today than when they were first offered. Suffice it to mention the names of only a few that every student of the science knows: BARRANDE, BRONGNIART, DESHAYES, A. MILNE-EDWARDS, POMEL, LEMOINE, and especially d'ORBIGNY. And in palaeobotany the indebtedness of the world is equally great, perhaps greater; for Adolphe BRONGNIART has been rightly called the father of the science. And what naturalist has not heard of SAPORTA? And there have been and are many others.

One is safe in saying, on a survey of the great names of palaeontology, that no nation of the nineteenth century did as much to advance the science of palaeontology; none has a greater list of eminent scientific names in palaeontology.

Instruction. What has France to offer the student of palaeontology today? First of all, a rich and inspiring memory of the great scientific men of the past. And, secondly, the rich collections that have served these men in their investigations, and the great museums and able teachers of today.

These collections are scattered more or less throughout the institutions of France. But (it goes without saying) the most extensive and important of all are in Paris, and especially in the great Natural History Museum, where American scientists have spent very pleasurable and fruitful days. One of the divisions of its vast collections is formed by palaeontology ("Galerie d'anatomie comparée, d'anthropologie, et de paléontologie," founded by Cuvier). The library contains 250,000 volumes, and, besides the lecture courses, there are monthly meetings of the scholars pursuing research there. At the École Nationale Supérieure des Mines also, there is a valuable and noted collection in palaeontology. The Universities of Caen, Grenoble, and Lille, also have special collections in palaeontology.

One of the few periodicals anywhere devoted to palaeontology is the Annales de Paléontologie, published for the past ten years at Paris under the direction of BOULE.

Palaeontology cannot be pursued as an isolated science. Fossils are merely animals and plants that have been dead longer than others, as Huxley once said, and must be studied in connection with living organisms and with geology. The student should therefore seek those universities where geology, and especially historical geology, is given much attention, and where also botany and zoölogy in all their branches are well represented. Perhaps there is no university in France, and few if any in all Europe, where all these requirements are better met than in Paris. Of the eighteen chairs in the Natural Sciences at the Museum of Natural History, one is assigned to Palaeontology; its present incumbent is BOULE, well known for his work in anthropology and palaeontology, more especially vertebrate palaeontology. In the University, under the Faculty of Science's, a course in palaeontology is given by THEVENIN, author of notable works in both invertebrate and vertebrate palaeontology, but especially the latter.

There are other universities in France where palaeontology is taught as a distinct science, and where the student may find better conditions for special studies; in the final work it is often the teacher who counts more than anything else. Courses in palaeontology are given at Caen by BIGOT, at Grenoble by KILIAN, and at Lille by BERTRAND. But there is no place, we believe, where he will find greater encouragement in his early studies than Paris.

From there he will easily find opportunity to inspect the institutions and museums of other cities, and to visit the numerous localities in France where the deposits of prehistoric times are so especially abundant and celebrated. In vertebrate palaeontology many famous fossils have been described from the Carboniferous and Lower Permian rocks of Autun, the Jurassic and Cretaceous of northern France, to the Eocene of Paris, Rheims, Aix, Soissons, the famous Oligocene of Quercy, the Miocene of the Dept. Allier, St.-Gérand-le-Puy, Soissons, and elsewhere. One need not add that the Paris Basin, of early Cenozoic age, was first made famous by Cuvier. In Anthropology no name is more eminent perhaps than that of BOUCHER DE PERTHES, who first really demonstrated the existence of fossil man. And the names of QUATREFAGES, LARTET, SERRES, and TOPINARD, are but little less so. But at this point we enter a field more fully described already in the Chapter on ANTHROPOLOGY.\

American students do not need to be reminded at length of the nature and extent of the contribution of France to the modern study of history. To the age of erudition France contributed the labors of the great Benedictines and of pre-eminent individuals of the type of Du CANGE, CUJAS, SCALIGER, and CASAUBON. In the eighteenth century it took the lead in the application of general ideas to history in the works of MONTESQUIEU and VOLTAIRE. A century later it had its brilliant group of literary historians, represented by RENAN, TAINE, and MICHELET. It founded Egyptology, and produced the greatest of recent mediaevalists in Léopold DELISLE. It has taken a notable part in the development of the sciences auxiliary to history, in the publication of great collections of sources, and in the maintenance of schools and the encouragement of exploration in the remoter portions of the earth. At the same time, amid the vast accumulations of historical detail, French historians have not lost their sense of proportion or their interest in the larger aspects of history; without sacrificing thoroughness of research or finish of workmanship, they have also preserved qualities of clearness, order, and literary skill which are characteristically French.

Fields of Instruction. French universities offer a wide range of instruction in the history of every period and of most parts of the world, as well as in a large number of related fields. History is there conceived in a broad and liberal spirit, with no exaggerated emphasis upon political details or special "interpretations." Less attention than is usually the case in the United States is given to economics and political science and to their relations to history, the instruction in these subjects being confined for the most part to the faculties of law. Legal history, however, receives more emphasis in France than with us, and law professors (such as FOURNIER, GIRARD, CAILLEMER, and others) have much to offer to students of history. Certain other aspects of history receive their due more fully in French than in American universities, or, in some cases, than anywhere else. This is notably true of geography, which in the French programs is brought into a close and at times even artificial connection with history; of archaeology and the history of art, studied in the midst of a great wealth of illustrative material at Paris; and of the history of religions, represented at the Collège de France by Loisy, and at the École des Hautes Études by a faculty of seventeen, unequalled in number or quality at any other center of learning in the world. Church history in the state universities is taught only as a part of general history and the history of religions; but courses of the more conventional type are given in the private faculties of theology, both Catholic and Protestant.

In Ancient History, Paris has JULLIAN, whose "Histoire de la Gaule" is a synthesis of a vast number of special studies in the field of history, philology, and archaeology; BOUCHÉ-LECLERC, whose manual of Roman institutions has served a generation of scholars; BLOCH, GLOTZ (on Greek law), GRÉBAUT; GSELL, the historian of Domitian and of Northern Africa; in archaeology and epigraphy, BABELON, COLLIGNON, FOUCART, HAUSSOULLIER, HÉRON DE VILLEFOSSE, HOLLEAUX, and CAGNAT; and a number of scholars in the fields of Semitic history, ancient religion, and early Christianity. In the provincial universities, ancient history is represented by RADET at Bordeaux, BESNIER at Caen, HOMO at Lyon, JOUGUET at Lille, LAURENT at Nancy, CLERC at Aix, and LÉCRIVAIN at Toulouse.

In the History of the Middle Ages, the French universities are excellently equipped. At Paris one may study under BÉMONT, editor of the "Revue Historique" and an admirable teacher, who has long been one of the world's leaders in the study of English history; DIEHL, the eminent writer on Byzantine history and Byzantine art; Ferdinand LOT, whose studies have remade a considerable portion of French history in the period of the Carolingians and their immediate successors; POUPARDIN and THÉVENIN on the early Middle Ages; PFISTER and JORDAN on the later period; and FLACH on the history of institutions. All the courses of the École des Chartes are of interest to the mediaevalist, notably the work of its learned and helpful director, Maurice PROU. On the side of art and archaeology, the supreme achievements of mediaeval France can be studied under ENLART, author of the indispensable "Manuel d'archéologie française," and MÂLE, the authority on mediaeval sculpture. The mediaevalists of the provincial universities include HALPHEN and FLICHE at Bordeaux; PRENTOUT at Caen; GUIRAUD at Besançon; STOUFF at Dijon; BRÉHIER at Clermont; GAY at Lille; KLEINCLAUSZ at Lyon; PARISOT at Nancy; SÉE at Rennes; CALMETTE and GALABERT at Toulouse.

In Modern History, perhaps the most distinguished French professor in active service (LAVISSE having now retired) is AULARD, who through his own work and that of his disciples has remade the history of the French Revolution. Others of note at Paris are BOURGEOIS, the historian of diplomacy, DENIS for the nineteenth century, and SEIGNOBOS for historical method and general topics. More special courses are offered by BERNARD, BLOCH, CULTRU, DEBIDOUR, REVON, and REUSS, and work in diplomatic history is given by BOURGEOIS and others at the École des Sciences Politiques. In provincial universities there should be mentioned HAUSER and FEBVRE at Dijon; BOISSONNADE and CARRÉ at Poitiers; DESDEVISES DU DÉZERT at Clermont; BLANCHARD at Grenoble; GAFFAREL at Aix; MATHIEZ at Besançon; WEILL at Caen; MARIÉJOL and WADDINGTON at Lyon; SAGNAC and ST. LÉGER at Lille; PARISOT at Nancy; GACHON and BOURRILLY at Montpellier; DUMAS at Toulouse; and COURTEAULT at Bordeaux.

Institutions. The natural center for historical students is the Faculty of Letters at Paris, generally known as the Sorbonne, with which the courses of the École Normale (formerly reserved exclusively for its own students) are now merged. Historical instruction is given by formal lectures (open to the public, and serving as excellent examples of the art of presentation); by private courses and discussions; and by exercises for the training of future teachers.

To many, the opportunities of the Sorbonne, with its nineteen lecturers on history, will appear sufficient. American students, however, accustomed to the comparative simplicity and centralization of university organization in the United States, need to have their attention directed to the great number of special schools and institutes outside of the central faculties of letters, science, law, and medicine. Those most closely connected with the study of history are the Collège de France, which maintains important courses of lectures in convenient proximity to the Sorbonne; the École Coloniale; the École d'Anthropologie; the École du Louvre; the Institut Catholique de Paris; the École Pratique des Hautes Études; the École des Chartes; and the École Libre des Sciences Politiques. For the majority of students the three last-named are the most important.

The historical sections of the École des Hautes Études, now housed in the buildings of the Sorbonne, offer advanced instruction in the form of a wide variety of seminary and special courses. The work is open to all, without distinction of age, degree, or nationality, who are willing to take active part in the exercises and can satisfy the instructor of their competence. Beyond this there are no conditions as to admission and no restrictions on the number and choice of courses. There is no fixed curriculum; those who have been in attendance three years and present a satisfactory thesis receive a diploma but no degree. The high quality of the theses is seen in the imposing "Bibliothèque de l'École des Hautes Études," a series of historical and philological monographs which comprises more than two hundred volumes.

The École des Chartes is a special school for the training of archivists and librarians for the public service. It embraces the whole period of French history down to 1789, with special emphasis upon the Middle Ages. It offers instruction in palaeography, diplomatics, archaeology, Romance philology, history of French law and institutions, sources of French history, and organization of libraries and archives. The curriculum covers three years, and the number of regular pupils is limited, but qualified outsiders are admitted to the courses. The school has a long and honorable tradition in the history of French scholarship and has served as a model for similar institutions in Vienna and Florence. Its alumni publish an important historical journal, the "Bibliothèque de l'École des Chartes."

The École Libre des Sciences Politiques is a private institution, occupying quarters in the Rue St. Guillaume, about fifteen minutes' walk from the Sorbonne. It was established in 1871, primarily for the purpose of fitting young men for the higher branches of the civil service, and its organization and character are determined by the examinations of the various government departments for which it prepares. Economics and political science naturally predominate, but attention is given to recent history, especially on the diplomatic and constitutional sides. The standing of the school is indicated by the names of its successive directors, BOUTMY, Anatole LEROY-BEAULIEU, and D'EICHTHAL, and by its publication, now known as the "Revue des Sciences Politiques."

Libraries, Archives, and Museums. The historical resources of Paris are greatly increased by the Bibliothèque Nationale and the various archives and museums. The Bibliothèque Nationale has the largest body of printed books in the world, and unrivalled collections of manuscripts and maps. Of the various depositories of unpublished documents, the most important for the American student are the Archives Nationales, under the enlightened direction of Charles V. LANGLOIS, the Archives des Affaires Étrangères, and the Archives de la Marine. The Carnegie Institution of Washington has nearly completed an elaborate guide to the materials for American history in these and other French collections. For daily use the library of the Sorbonne is well equipped and well administered, with the library of Ste.-Geneviève close at hand; and the special schools also have useful libraries of reference. Paris is especially rich in museums of historical interest, notably the unique riches of the Louvre, the Musée de Cluny, the museum of Comparative Sculpture at the Trocadéro, and the Musée Carnavalet, where the history of Paris from the earliest times is unrolled before the visitor. Finally, Paris itself is full of history, from the baths of the Emperor Julian to the memorials of the present war, and constitutes an unfailing source of inspiration to the intelligent student.

Provincial Universities. The provincial universities naturally offer fewer opportunities than Paris, but their faculties comprise eminent scholars and teachers, competent in many cases to direct work in important historical fields outside of the history of France. Several of these universities have special chairs of local or regional history, and they all afford an excellent introduction to French life and thought.

On the whole it is the advanced student of history, and not the beginner, who will derive most advantage from a sojourn in France, and especially in Paris. The immature youth, who has not yet secured a good grasp of the essential facts of history, who has not received some substantial training in investigation, and has not some clear ideas concerning the nature of historical study and the reasons why he is pursuing it---a man of this sort is ill prepared to work wisely amid the multiplicity of special courses and the manifold distractions of the French capital. Thanks to the rapid development of American universities in the past thirty years, it is no longer necessary to cross the Atlantic in order to begin one's historical apprenticeship, or even, in some lines, in order satisfactorily to complete it; and there can be no question that the proportion of those who pursue their entire graduate course abroad has much decreased. Their place is being taken by a growing number of mature students---professors on leave, traveling fellows, newly-made doctors, and others---who desire to continue work already well begun here. During their residence abroad these men will no doubt increase their stock of historical information and learn valuable lessons in historical method. But their greatest profit will come from access to great collections of historical material, from the stimulus of contact with new teachers and new ideas, and from first-hand knowledge of the monuments of the European past and the life of the European present. To such students France offers a warm welcome and a wide opportunity.

The learned and systematic study of law, though never entirely broken off in the Middle Ages, begins virtually for the modern world with the revival of the study of Roman Law under Irnerius at the University of Bologna, in the second half of the 1000s A. D. From Italy germinated the subsequent growth of legal science in other countries. After four centuries, when the schools of the Glossators and the Commentators had successively risen and fallen in that country, the primacy in legal studies passed to France, which gave to the brilliant Italian Humanist, ALCIAT, a home at Avignon, in 1518, and afterwards at Bourges. "Jurisprudentia romana," said the Englishman Duck in 1650, "si apud alias gentes extincta esset, apud solos Gallos reperiri posset." The "mos Gallicus" had become the fashion in the juristic world; and for two centuries France held this European primacy, under CUJAS, DONEAU, BAUDOUIN, DUMOULIN, BRISSON, DOUAREN, GODEFROI, and HOTMAN. By that time legal science had become more nationalized. Every country of Western Europe was developing its jurists.

In the seventeenth and the eighteenth centuries France's great task was the complex one of consolidating and nationalizing its own composite body of law. The labors of DOMAT, D'AGUESSEAU, LAMOIGNON, COLBERT, POTHIER, and others of that period, and the commercial and procedural legislation under Louis XIV, prepared the way for the grand results of the Napoleonic codification; and the political philosophies of MONTESQUIEU and ROUSSEAU initiated a world-influence which has not yet ceased.

The promulgation of the Napoleonic Codes (Civil, Penal, Commercial, Criminal, Procedural) between 1804 and 1810, was the greatest legal fact of the first half of the nineteenth century. These Codes represented the legal side of the vast social and political revolution of ideas in the Western world; and they belted the globe with their influence. Not only many European countries, but almost all the Latin-American States, used the Codes in framing their own legislation. In the stimulus given by them indirectly in many departments of law, the Napoleonic Codes continued to be dominant legal factors until the last quarter of the nineteenth century. The method of textual commentary, based on the fixed categories of the Codes, absorbed most of the energies of French jurists during the first three quarters of the century; and these Commentaries are still in common use even in foreign States (like Latin America, Louisiana, and Quebec) which had based their legislation on the French Code.

But changed social and political conditions raised new problems and shifted the emphasis laid on older and persistent needs. The spread of the Historical School (championed from Germany by SAVIGNY in the second quarter of the century) and the interest in historical and comparative studies created by Sir Henry MAINE, FUSTEL DE COULANGES, and Albert POST; the expanding claims of philology, archaeology, psychology, anthropology, and other sciences; the development of social philosophies in France and elsewhere; the growth of commercial, industrial, and maritime interests; and the increased attention paid to international law and administrative law --- all these influences helped to open new fields of investigation outside of the Civil Code.

With this shifting of emphasis, the last quarter of the century began to see active attention paid to the other and now dominant fields of legal interest. During the last forty or fifty years, and increasingly so in that period, every department of the world's legal thought has been represented in France by master minds in the university chairs and by treatises embodying the most approved methods and original results in legal research.

In Latin America and in some European countries (such as Belgium, Greece, and Roumania), the study of the French Codes is the study of their source-law. But for American students, no country's law, except that of England, presents such a direct reason for pursuing its advanced study abroad. Technical law is essentially local; its materials are largely the legislation and practice of each country. In this respect, legal science differs from (let us say) mathematics or zoology.

Nevertheless, law has its universal aspects, and they are growing with each decade. Among the important topics which thus have an extra-national value and interest for the legal scholar are Roman Law, Comparative Law and Legislation, Legal History, Philosophy of Law, Constitutional and Administrative Law, International Law, Criminology and Criminal Law.

In all of these fields, France offers interesting and valuable opportunities for university study under the most accomplished masters.

But before noting the instruction offered in these particular subjects, a few words may be offered regarding some other features of French law interesting to the American lawyer.

One of these is the splendid professional tradition dominant in French courts of justice.(18) The position of the advocate, in courage, independence, professional privilege, and fidelity to his client, is comparable only to that of our own professional predecessors in England, Ireland, Scotland, and our own country. The judges, having come up to the Bench from the Bar, as in England and America, have shared this spirit of professional independence. No other country is as notable as France in this common trait. Four times in French legal history has the entire Bar resigned its functions, and left the courts without lawyers, rather than submit to the arbitrary dictation of princes and politicians. The glorious incidents that are treasured in our professional annals find their parallels in all periods of the French Bar. If we are proud for this reason of the names of Coke, of Mansfield, of Erskine, of Brougham, of Denman, of Otis, of Hamilton, of Henry, of Choate, France too has its traditions, of Talon, exiled by the crafty Cardinal Mazarin for resisting an unjust decree; of Servin, who fell dead while uttering a similar protest in the presence of Cardinal Richelieu and Louis XIII; of Élie de Beaumont, whose memoir against the unjust execution of Calas was read throughout Europe and led to Voltaire's famous diatribe against the criminal law; of Bellart, who defended many of the victims of the Terror, before the most bloodthirsty Tribunal the world has ever seen; of Malesherbes, who dared to act as counsel for the unfortunate Louis XVI before the Convention, and himself met his client's fate at the guillotine two years later; of Bonnet, who defied Napoleon in defending General Moreau; of Berryer, who defended the future Napoleon III on a charge of treason against Louis Philippe; and of Captain Dreyfus' courageous counsel, Labori, whose, recent death the two Republics lament. These traditions, continuous over five centuries, are not without meaning to the American student of law. They impress themselves on the whole system of law and justice. A country which possesses and prizes such traditions of the Bar is one which offers the Anglo-American student an inspiration congenial and fruitful to his professional studies.

Another feature worth recalling --- intangible, perhaps, but real --- is the rich variety of legal reminiscences that meet the visitor at every spot in France, and help to arouse interest in the history and romance of the law. Every epoch of law here purveys for him something of its sentiment. In Paris, he may linger before the veritable pillar of Hammurabi's Code, four thousand years old. In the South and in the museums and libraries of Paris he may trace, in manuscripts and monuments, the vast influx, in a later epoch, of the great system of Roman law, as it spread over Celtic Gaul. In the next great epoch, the revival of Roman law a thousand years later, he finds everywhere, south of the Loire, the reminiscences of the world-jurists of the day,---at Toulouse, where Coras lectured to 4000 hearers; at Avignon and at Valence, where Alciat brought the new law-learning from Italy four centuries ago; and at Bourges, where Cujas taught, at whose renowned name (Hallam tells us) the law students of Germany were accustomed to take off their hats; and where also the great Hotman lectured, who once said that our Littleton's classical treatise on "Tenures" was "incondite, absurde, et inconcinne scriptum," and was thereupon pilloried by our patriotic, irascible Coke ("Stultum est absurdas opiniones refellere.") In Normandy, at Rouen, he may enter the superb Court House, the oldest building in Europe (now that Westminster Hall is deserted by the judges) where justice has been dispensed continually since its erection; and at Caen, the home of William the Conqueror, he may see the manuscript of the Custom of Normandy, of which English law for a time was a branch only. In Brittany, at Tréguier, he may pay homage at the shrine of Yves, the patron saint of our profession, the only lawyer ever canonized ("Advocatus sed non latro, res miranda populo"); and at Rennes, for modern flavor, he may visit the court-room where the second trial of Captain Dreyfus took place, the world's most famous trial for half a century past. At Bordeaux, he may see the home and the statue of Montesquieu, whose philosophy of law and government is still embodied in the American Constitution; and at Toulouse, he finds, Sir Thomas Smith composed his "Commonwealth of England," by two centuries a precursor of Sir William Blackstone's "Commentaries." At St. Omer, where the great College of the Jesuits once flourished, he comes upon the traces of our famous Irish advocate and crossexaminer, Daniel O'Connell, who was there educated. At Bourges, Scotch lawyers once studied. At Clermont, he finds the birthplace of Domat, whose works are still cited by our Supreme Court of Louisiana.--- And so he may continue, marking off in his pilgrimage at every spot some significant event or personage that has contributed to the world's movement in law.

This "sentimental journey," it is true, may not directly assist his technical proficiency; and it may not appeal to all temperaments. But for the American student abroad one of the greatest gains must always be the sense of union with the notable events and persons of the past in his chosen field. And the profession of the law in America needs to become less insular and less narrow in its outlook on the present, and more aware of the continuity of all legal traditions and knowledge. The future American jurist who spends a time in France may be assured of finding there the most varied interest, and the most lasting inspiration for the broadening and deepening of his professional studies.

Instruction in the Universities. It remains to summarize the specific resources for university instruction in the chief subjects of general interest.

Roman Law. The great tradition of ORTOLAN 'S name, whose treatise first appeared in 1827 ("Législation romaine; explication historique des Instituts de Justinien"; 12th ed., 3 vols., 1883), is worthily maintained by a group of distinguished scholars, representing every field of Roman law and the most modern methods of archaeological and philological research. Among them may be named these: P. F. GIRARD (Paris), the veteran master, one of the two or three living scholars who receive the world's homage in this field; his "Textes de droit romain" and "Manuel élémentaire de droit romain" are handbooks in many countries; APPLETON (Lyon), whose principal work is "La propriété prétorienne" (2 vols., 1889); CUQ (Paris), author of "Les institutions juridiques des Romains" (2 vols., 1902-1907), who lectures on Roman legal history; JOBBÉ-DUVAL (Paris), author of "Études sur l'histoire de la procédure chez les Romains" (1896), and of essays on the history of Continental procedure, who lectures on the Digest (or Pandects, as the current French usage has it); AUDIBERT (Paris), also a specialist in the history of Roman law; MEYNIAL (Paris), professor of the history of Roman and French law; MAY (Paris), whose "Éléments de droit romain" has gone into its tenth edition; HUVELIN (Lyon), whose "Le Furtum" (vol. I, 1914), represents a lifetime's labors and ranges over the entire area of primitive Roman ideas; COLLINET (Lille), author of "Étude historique sur le droit de Justinien "(vol. I, 1912); THOMAS (Toulouse), whose specialty is the papyrology of Roman Law in Egypt; DESSERTEAUX (Dijon), author of numerous works on technical Roman law; MONNIER (Bordeaux), whose specialty is Byzantine Roman Law; FLACH (Paris), whose vast authority in the historical field makes him a specialist in medieval Roman law.

Legal History. The position of France as the Western haven of mingling racial streams of immigration and conquest --- Celtic, Romanic, Germanic --- has always been a stimulus to the decipherer of historical riddles of law. And its rich collection of records of customary law has served as fertile training material for historical scholars. The notable names of the first three-quarters of the nineteenth century --- PARDESSUS, GINOULHIAC, LABOULAYE, LAFERRIÈRE, GARSONNET, GIRAUD, BEUGNOT occupied themselves chiefly with the critical editing of these sources (on which, indeed, the greater number of modern scholars are still laboring). Then came a period of masters who devoted themselves to works of larger scope; and this period now continues. The earlier ones (but just passed off the stage) include FUSTEL DE COULANGES (a contemporary of Sir Henry Maine's, and almost as influential in his ideas); GLASSON (whose volumes cover the legal history not only of France but also of England); TARDIF (who specially worked in Norman law); ESMEIN (a versatile master in many fields); BEAUNE and VIOLLET (whose works have each a special merit); and BRISSAUD, who was perhaps the greatest modern historian of law in any country; certainly Maitland, Brunner, and Schupfer (of Rome) can alone be mentioned with him.

Of the older generation of masters now pursuing their labors these may be mentioned in passing: FOURNIER (Paris), whose specialty is the history of mediaeval Roman and ecclesiastical law; FLACH (Paris), whose "Origines de l'ancienne France" marks his special interest in the history of public law; his chair is, that of the Comparative History of Legal Systems; JOBBÉ-DUVAL (Paris), one of whose specialties is mediaeval procedure.

Among those masters who may be spoken of as juniors, but in age only, not in achievement, are these: HUVELIN (Lyon), whose History of Commercial Law (now in preparation) will take the place of Goldschmidt's in the coming generation; LAMBERT (Lyon), whose interests extend into Comparative Legal History; CAILLEMER (Grenoble), whose "History of Executors" has thrown much light on English law; DECLAREUIL (Toulouse), whose special field has been the Frankish law; GÉNESTAL (Paris), whose principal work is in the history of Canon laws; CHÉNON, MEYNIAL, and LEFÈBVRE (Paris), who represent general French legal history; the "Histoire du droit matrimonial français" (4 vols., 1908-14), by the last-named scholar, is still unfinished; COLLINET (Lille), who besides holding the chair of French Legal History is an authority in Roman Law.

The Société d'Histoire du Droit et des Institutions cultivates specially this field. In the chapter on History in this book will be found a more particular account of the resources available for research in History generally.

Comparative Legal History. This subject (as distinguished from Comparative Contemporary Legislation) naturally is linked with that of Roman and Western European legal history, and several of the incumbents of chairs above mentioned deal with aspects of it in their treatises and courses. But, in another relation, it merges into the History of Universal Legal Ideas, or Evolution of Law; and the cultivation of this branch of learning has gone on apace in France, since the classic days of Sir Henry MAINE and FUSTEL DE COULANGES, whose works, appearing about the same time in the '60s, have passed into numerous editions in many languages and have set going a world-wide wave of ideas. It may be said that KOHLER, in Germany, and DARESTE (recently deceased) in France, have been the two chief inspirers of research in this field in the past generation. But the social, economic, and anthropological fields are here so intimately involved that much valuable work has been done by scholars who cannot strictly be classed as jurists. In France, Paul GIDE, LAVELÈYE, LETOURNEAU, TARDE, ARBOIS DE JOUBAINVILLE, represent the general literature of the past generation on this subject. The brothers REVILLOUT, with their prolific works on Egyptian and Babylonian law, gave new directions to the zest for general ideas in this field. DE LA GRASSERIE (recently deceased) emphasized its sociologic aspects.

For living teachers, no one stands out as specially devoted to it; the several aspects must be sought among the specialists in history, philology, ethnology, sociology, archaeology, and philosophy. For example, GLOTZ (Paris), in Greek law; DURKHEIM (Paris), in primitive religions; HAUSSOULIER (Paris), in epigraphy; SCHEIL (Paris), in Assyriology, are powerfully stimulating the comparative treatment of legal evolution in its border relations with philology, religion, economics, and sociology. There is also a special École d'Anthropologie at Paris.

Comparative Contemporary Law. This field, which sometimes merges into the former, is richly represented in French learning. The Société de Législation comparée, founded in 1870 (the oldest of its kind) publishes an "Annuaire de législation comparée," as well as a "Bulletin"; and the Ministry of justice has long had a Bureau, the Comité de législation étrangère, which publishes translations of the important foreign codes. A number of chairs or courses are especially entitled "de législation comparée," or "de droit comparé," such as those of CAPITANT (Paris), CHAVEGRIN (Paris), MASSIGLI (Paris), FLACH (Paris), LAMBERT (Lyon), LYON-CAEN and THALLER (Paris), with more or less specializing in the several departments of civil, criminal, commercial, or constitutional law.

Systems of Colonial Legislation naturally receive attention in nearly every faculty of law. Officials of the colonial service are contributing valuable publications of materials on Mohammedan, Chinese, and African law and custom. In the École Coloniale (Paris) are given courses in general colonial law, in the law of China, Indo-China, Algeria, Tunis, occidental and equatorial Africa, and in Mohammedan law. Industrial Legislation has now become a subject of comparative study. Beside the courses under the Faculties of Law by JAY and PERCEROU (Paris), LESCURE (Bordeaux), PIC (Lyon), BÉRENGER (Marseille), and others, instruction is given in this subject at the Conservatoire National des Arts et Métiers, at the École Centrale des Arts et Manufactures, and at the École de Législation Professionelle. The Association Internationale pour la protection légale des Travailleurs has its headquarters at Paris, and is an active stimulator of research.

Legislative Methods are coming into the field of comparative law. The necessity for re-casting or replacing the century-old Civil Code has stimulated a number of activities, particularly the Société d'Études Législatives, a unique organization, which studies the Code topically, and through separate Committees prepares and discusses drafts of proposed new chapters framed in the light of contemporary needs and comparative law. The Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques has a section for Legislation, which conducts lectures and debates. At Toulouse, the Académie de Législation conducts debates and publishes a Recueil. And a number of prize competitions for essays are devoted especially to the subject of contemporary legislation.

The rich resources available for legal research in libraries and archives are fully set forth in. the chapter on Political Science in this book, and need not be here repeated.

Philosophy of Law and Jurisprudence. Neither the analytic jurisprudence of Austin, made dominant by him for Anglo-America, nor the metaphysical philosophy of law, pursued in Germany since Kant's time, obtained much footing with French jurists during the 1800s. Nor have the universities of France, any more than those of America, included courses on jurisprudence and philosophy of law as a formal part of their prescribed curriculum. The philosophy of law was left to the philosophers,--- Comte, Fourier, Proudhon, Fouillée.

But the last twenty-five years have seen a remarkable growth in France of a vigorous interest in both of these allied branches of study,---chiefly inspired and led (so far as personal influence was responsible) by the eminent idealist philosopher FOUILLÉE, and by the great jurist SALEILLES,, whose recent death is lamented in many departments of legal science. A host of younger men now cultivate this field with such originality and success that, for the philosophy of law of the coming generation, the French systems are vital for every American student, ---the more so as they are the product of a democratic nation whose traditions, experiences, and ideals are germane to our own.

Among the principal contributors now occupying university chairs may be mentioned: BEUDANT (Grenoble), author of "Le droit individuel et l'État" (1891); CHARMONT (Montpellier), author of "Le droit et l'esprit démocratique," and "La renaissance du droit naturel"; CAPITANT (Paris) and PLANIOL (Paris), whose books, entitled "Elementary Treatise on Civil Law," represent most nearly what we are accustomed to term "Analytical Jurisprudence"; DUGUIT (Bordeaux), whose masterly works "Le droit social, le droit individuel, et la transformation de l'État" and "Les transformations générales du droit civil" have recently been published (in part) in American translations, together with representative parts of CHARMONT'S and DEMOGUE'S works; (Nancy), whose "Méthode d'interprétation et sources en droit privé positif" (1899) has stirred European philosophic legal thought as no other single book has done since von Ihering's "Der Zweck im Recht"; DEMOGUE (Luc), author of "Notions fondamentales de droit privé" (1911), which has instantly been recognized as the work of a master; HAURIOU (Toulouse), author of "Le mouvement social," and of "Principes du droit public" (1909), one of the most original treatises of the time; LAMBERT (Lyon), whose work bridges the gap between comparative law and general jurisprudence; LARNAUDE (Paris; dean of the Faculty of Law), whose progressive influence in this field is comparable to that of the lamented SALEILLES.

Nor is the expanding power of French thought in this field to be measured by a few names in the principal chairs; for the published works of RICHARD ("L'origine de l'idée du droit"), MICHOUD ("La théorie de la personnalité morale"), CRUET ("La vie du droit"), ROLIN ("Prolégomènes de la science du droit"), TANON, chief justice of the Court of Appeal ("L'évolution du droit");

LEROY ("La loi"), and others, demonstrate that the entire region of general jurisprudence and philosophy of law is being cultivated with abundant originality and power for the coming generation.

A more ample view of the scope of current French work on these subjects is obtainable in vol. VII of the Modern Legal Philosophy Series, entitled "Modern French Legal Philosophy" (Boston, 1916).

Criminal Law. Criminal law is now everywhere becoming recognized as dependent on Criminal Science in general (or Criminology), and thus presents many common problems of theory and method in all countries. France's contributions to Criminology are elsewhere in this volume fully treated under that head. It is enough here to note that the study of Criminal Law itself is in France fully in touch, both in theory and in legislative spirit, with the forward movement of the last half century.

The French Penal Code of 1810 was the first radical legislative response in Europe to the humanizing revolution of opinion led by Beccaria, Howard, and Voltaire. Progress in theory during the nineteenth century was followed by successive legislative reforms in all fields; legislation for juvenile offenders, for example, was enacted as early as 1875; for release on parole, in 1885; and for suspended sentence, in 1891. In the subjects of criminal procedure, of indeterminate sentence, and of revision of penal definitions generally, discussion still progresses. The student will find in France as in America the same general and active ferment of constructive inquiry, experiment, and debate, among all interested groups. The scientific and literary activity outside of the Universities would make a long bibliography, and indicates the fertility of current French thought in this field.

In the law schools, Criminal Law receives in general more attention than in any American law school. At Paris, there are two professors,---GARÇON, who has annotated the Code Pénal, and LE POITTEVIN, who has annotated the Code d'Instruction Criminelle; the latter has also published elaborate practical treatises on Criminal Procedure, Police Procedure, and Judicial Records; both give alternately a course in Comparative Criminal Law. The masterly treatise of SALEILLES (recently deceased; one of France's most famous modern jurists), on "The Individualization of Punishment," has been translated into English for an American Committee, in the Modern Criminal Science Series.

At Lyon is GARRAUD, the best known criminal jurist of France. Enough to say that his two treatises on Criminal Law and Criminal Procedure (six volumes each, now appearing in their second and third editions) are the most nearly perfect of their kind in any language. At Bordeaux is BONNECASE; at Caen, DEGOIS; at Dijon, ROUX; at Grenoble, GUÉTAT; at Lille, DEMOGUE; at Rennes, CHAUVEAU; at Toulouse, MAGNOL; at Montpellier, LABORDE, who offers a special course in Criminal Procedure and Penal Methods.

International Law and Public Law. The general activities and the university instruction in these two fields are so fully set forth in the chapter on Political Science, in this book, that a repetition here is needless. Suffice it to say that in each of them the student of law will find the most extensive and helpful opportunities.

General Legal Subjects. In addition to the foregoing subjects of supranational interest, the American student will find a valuable field for comparison in the courses on distinctively national law, both in the arrangement of the curriculum and in the mode of teaching and study. In two main respects the curriculum differs from the accepted American plan,---it includes more of political and legal science, i. e., non-private law subjects, and it makes fewer subdivisions of the private law. For example, the three-year curriculum for the Licence degree at Paris covers, respectively, six, six, and eleven courses; of these twenty-three courses, three are in political economy, two in Roman law, two in international law, three in public and administrative law, one in history, and one in colonial legislation; leaving three for commercial law, one for criminal law, two for civil procedure, and five for civil or private law. The last group would with us be so subdivided as to form at least two thirds of the curriculum. In the curriculum for the Doctorate, all of the above subjects are pursued in advanced topics, with fewer lecture hours and with opportunity for specialization. In some of the provincial universities (but not in Paris), there is a separate Institut Pratique de droit, and (in Paris also) an École du Notariat, where the technical niceties of pleading, practice, and conveyancing, are specially studied. Thus the foreign student is less likely, under the regular University curriculum, to find the local practitioner's point of view as prominently emphasized as it is in most American schools.

Methods of Instruction. The American law student, trained in the case-system of study and the Socratic method of instruction, finds himself in the French law school an attendant at formal lectures, where he is a mere "auditeur." The size of classes (especially at Paris), and the traditions of French teaching, have not encouraged the close contact of faculty and student that obtains in the best American schools today. This may be at first a cause of disappointment, and even of discouragement, to the energetic student. But it should rather prove a test of his mettle. The problem of self-adjustment to new methods and materials is of itself valuable to the thinker. And, of course, to the earnest and talented aspirant, personal contact with the most eminent professors is attainable.

Perhaps equal in value to the acquirement of positive knowledge are the influences of the French "milieu," scholastic, public and private; these, if the student be sensible to them, must inevitably draw him, as an earnest partisan on one or the other side, into the stimulating movements which are characterizing French thought today.

Finally it may be noted that the French genius for formal public expression should offer to the receptive American aspirant a stimulus and a model, such as would profit both the practitioner and the university teacher in America.

The study of Mathematics has always made a special appeal to the French genius, distinguished by its fondness for logic and its striving for perfection in form. Since the time of VIETA, FERMAT, DESCARTES, and PASCAL, there has never been a period in which French mathematicians have not held a commanding position in their field. In particular, during the great epoch of 1730-1820, when the Calculus and its applications received their formal development, it has been well said that "the scepter of Mathematics was in French hands." To justify this, one needs mention only the names of LAGRANGE, LAPLACE, LEGENDRE, PONCELET, and MONGE, among a host of others.

Though this period was followed by one somewhat less brilliant, especially after the passing of FOURIER and POISSON; yet the work of CAUCHY alone, in the first three decades after 1820, would have upheld the great tradition. To this epoch also belong GALOIS, who before his death at twenty-one had discovered principles that recreated modern algebra, and STURM and LIOUVILLE, whose names are attached to fundamental results in algebra and the theory of linear differential equations.

To HERMITE belongs the distinction of leading the French school of mathematicians from the death of CAUCHY till the rise of the present group, who may well be regarded as having restored the preëminence of France in Mathematics. He was in a special sense their master, equally great as teacher and scholar, and, in the wide field he covered, typical of the modern school. Among the notable contributors of this period was CHASLES.

The present era in French mathematics may be said to date from the early work of DARBOUX and JORDAN, in the late sixties and early seventies. In rapid succession appear the names of PICARD, POINCARÉ, APPELL, PAINLEVÉ, GOURSAT, HADAMARD, and BOREL. Nor have the achievements of the still younger group given ground to believe that successors will be wanting. The brilliance of the modern school has been enhanced by the broadness of its leaders' achievements; the contributions of PICARD, POINCARÉ, and HADAMARD, for example, have been remarkable in geometry, algebra, and applied mathematics, as well as in analysis. The latter field has, however, been perhaps the most cultivated.

No account of recent French mathematics can be complete which fails to yield its tribute to the genius of POINCARÉ. At his death, in 1912, it was the universal verdict that he must be considered the greatest mathematician of his age.

Mathematicians of Today and their Work. It has undoubtedly been true for many years that the group of mathematicians resident in Paris was the most distinguished to be found at any one place in the world, and there is no reason to believe that this situation will soon be altered. The centralization of French scientific activity presents distinct advantages to the mathematical student from abroad, especially to the man of more mature type. The older and more eminent mathematicians are grouped in Paris. However, many of the provincial universities have on their faculties one or more men, usually of the younger scholars, who have such special knowledge of a given field that the visiting student cannot afford to ignore the opportunity of working with them. Thus, within a few years past two younger men as well-known as BOUTROUX and FRÉCHET were to be found at Poitiers; and, to mention but one other name, BAIRE was at another provincial university. The university of Toulouse has always had a strong mathematical faculty.

The dean of French mathematicians, still active, is DARBOUX, perhaps the most distinguished living worker in the field of differential geometry. His great treatise is the standard authority on that subject. In spite of the demands made on his time by his other duties (he is, for example, permanent secretary of the Academy of Sciences), he continues to give each year a course at the Sorbonne on higher geometry that no visiting student can afford to miss. It would be worth while to sit under him, if only to absorb something of his great charm as a lecturer. (20)

PICARD is equally noted for his life and inspiration in the class-room; he is one of the few men who are great both as teachers and investigators. For nearly forty years his contributions to the theory of functions and to differential equations have been of fundamental importance. Many of them have been summed up in his great "Traité d'analyse," of which the fourth and last volume is still in preparation, and in the two volumes of the "Théorie des fonctions algébriques de deux variables indépendantes." The field represented by this last work has of late years especially occupied his attention. His lectures at the Sorbonne share with Darboux's the distinction of being among the most popular under the Faculty of Sciences.

Although APPELL has long been dean of the Faculty of Sciences at the Sorbonne, he has continued to give a course there each year. His contributions to analysis and applied mathematics are indicated by his well-known volumes on algebraic functions and their integrals (in collaboration with GOURSAT), on elliptic functions, (jointly with LACOUR), and especially by his three-volume "Traité de mécanique rationnelle." He has been especially distinguished as a teacher, and for a number of years gave a most successful course in the Sorbonne on general mathematics for students of other sciences; this is now accessible in published form. In 1915-16 he lectured on analytic mechanics and celestial mechanics.

GOURSAT has long covered the field of differential and integral calculus at the Sorbonne. His lectures have formed the basis of his celebrated "Cours d'analyse," one of the most widely used modern texts in its field. Only less well-known are his works on partial differential equations and on algebraic functions, while his frequent contributions have made his name familiar to readers of mathematical periodicals.

BOREL bears the title of professor at the Sorbonne, and in some years has given public lectures there. In the year 1915-16, however, his work was confined to the École Normale Supérieure, and was open to visiting students only by special arrangement. He may be considered, perhaps jointly with HADAMARD as the leader in a younger group of French analysts. He is probably best known by the series of monographs (on the theory of functions) of which he is the editor, and of a number of which he is the author.

In 1915-16, GUICHARD and CAHEN gave courses in the Sorbonne on rational mechanics. Both these men have done important work also in other fields, the former in geometry, the latter in the theory of numbers. Their brilliant predecessor in the chair of mechanics, PAINLEVÉ, has been for a time occupied with governmental work, as Minister of Education.

The courses of BOUSSINESQ and KOENIGS in mathematical physics should also be mentioned, though they lie partly without the field we are considering.

In addition to the lecture courses mentioned above, conferences were held at the Sorbonne and the École Normale in 1915-16 by LEBESGUE, whose new theory of integration is already classical; VESSIOT, perhaps best known for his work in extending the Galois theory to linear differential equations; CARTAN, whose name is familiar to students of group theory; and MONTEL, who has made brilliant contributions to the theory of functions.

If we have deferred mention of HADAMARD, it is not because he can be assigned any other than a foremost position among French mathematicians, but on account of the fact that his work in not at the Sorbonne, but at the Collège de France and the École Polytechnique. At the latter institution his classes are not open to the public; but at the former, where he holds the chair of Analytic and Celestial Mechanics, all hearers are welcome. His courses are by no means confined to the subjects indicated; in the year 1915-16 he lectured on the analytic theory of prime numbers, to which he made contributions of such fundamental importance in his earlier work. Like Poincaré, his genius has covered almost the whole field of mathematics, and he has especially enriched analysis and applied mathematics by his researches.

At the Collège de France one may also hear the lectures of HUMBERT, perhaps best known by his "Cours d'analyse." His work is mainly in algebra and analysis. The courses in mathematical physics given here by BRILLOUIN and LANGEVIN fall at least partly in the field we are considering.

Special Facilities for Work in Mathematics. The difficulty of obtaining personal assistance and direction has by some been considered, in past periods, an obstacle to the study of mathematics in France. It is true that there is nothing like a seminary system, but men of some maturity who are pursuing research along a special line will find the experts in that field glad to confer with them. The leaders in French mathematics are unusually accessible personally, and many American students have derived inspiration and encouragement from them.

It is possible for foreign students to obtain admission to the École Normale Supérieure, and in the past a few have done so. One may thus attend courses closed to the public and have access to the large mathematical library of the school. The mere association with the intellectual élite of French students is a privilege worth while in itself.

The great library of the Sorbonne has a complete mathematical collection; one who joins the French mathematical society has the privilege, enjoyed by members, of access to the shelves of the library. Another mathematical collection of considerable value to one lodged in the student quarter of Paris is that of the Bibliothèque Sainte-Geneviève.