The history of Anthropology, with its four subdivisions of Physical Anthropology, Prehistoric Archaeology, Ethnology, and Ethnography, can be traced in France perhaps better than in any other country of the world.

Physical Anthropology. This statement is especially true of Physical Anthropology. It was a French traveller, BERNIER (1625-1688) who first attempted to distinguish the races of mankind; this preceded the classification of LINNAEUS by over fifty years. BUFFON (1707-1788) was one of the first to insist that man was a single species. The "Transformism" of LAMARCK (1744-1829) was the first coherent theory of evolution. This hypothesis was supported by SAINT-HILAIRE (1772-1844), and attacked by CUVIER (1769-1832), who put forward "the catastrophic theory" as his solution of the question of the history of the animal world. Hair as the most perfect of the criteria of race was recognized as early as 1827 by SAINT-VINCENT and in 1858 by SAINT-HILAIRE. But it was not until 1863, when PRUNER BEY read his classic memoir before the Société d'Anthropologie, that the importance of this criterion for a classification of the races of man was fully realized.

Alfred Haddon(2) has called BROCA, TOPINARD, and DE QUATREFAGES the "Systematisers" of Anthropology. BROCA (1824-1880), the greatest of all physical anthropologists, was the prime mover in the establishment of the Société d'Anthropologie de Paris in 1859 and of the École d'Anthropologie in 1876. His pioneer work on craniology led to his invention of numerous important instruments for this study. His work on the hybridization of the human species was the first study to be made of race-mixture. TOPINARD made valuable investigations on the living population of France, and his work "L'Anthropologie" (1876) has remained the standard text-book almost up to the present time. The third of the "Systematisers" was DE QUATREFAGES (1810-1892), professor of Anthropology in the Muséum d'Histoire Naturelle of Paris. He was an early champion of the much derided claim of man's great antiquity upon this earth. His book "L'Espèce humaine" (1877) was one of the first to take into account the importance of fossil forms of man.

A list of other French physical anthropologists and their interests should include DENIKER and his "Races et peuples de la terre" (1900); HAMY; COLLIGNON, in pigmentation and anthropometrical surveys; QUÉTELET, a pioneer of the biometric method; VERNEAU and his work on the Grimaldi and Cro-Magnon "races"; BOULE on the bones from La Chapelle-aux-Saints; and MANOUVRIER. Mention should be made here of the work of BERTILLON on the identification of criminals.

Prehistoric Archaeology. In the field of prehistoric archaeology, France has played the leading part. This is due to some extent to the rich field for archaeology to be found in France. It is significant that the current modern name of each of the periods of the palaeolithic culture in Europe is a French name associated with a site where typical forms of stone implements were found. The name of BOUCHER DE PERTHES stands out in this field of prehistoric archaeology. His discoveries at Abbeville, in 1825, of the bones of extinct animals associated with flint implements led him to champion the cause of early man in France. It was not until 1859 that these finds were completely substantiated by the investigations of the English archaeologists, PRESTWICH, LYELL, and Sir John EVANS. The importance of this validation cannot be over-estimated in the history of prehistoric archaeology. COURMANT (who may be called the successor of Boucher de Perthes) and D'Acy have worked in the river-drift deposits.

We come next to the great period of cave man in the famous Dordogne district. Beginning with the classical discoveries at Les Eyzies by LARTET and his English companion, CHRISTY, we have a long series of names, including the father of prehistoric archaeology, GABRIEL DE MORTILLET, and his son, ADRIAN DE MORTILLET, MASSÉNAT, GIROD, and later the investigations, largely undertaken in concert, by l'Abbé BREUIL, CAPITAN, BOULE, VERNEAU, and PEYRONY. The Menton caves have been described by ABBO, RIVIÈRE, and CARTAILHAC. Mention should also be made of the work of ARCELIN at Solutré, MARTIN at La Quina, and CHAUVET near Angoulême. PIETTE stands out alone for his researches in the Pyrenees on the "painted pebbles" and the sculptures, and for his establishment of the genuineness of the palaeolithic cave paintings and etchings. The subventions of the Prince of Monaco made possible extensive recent excavations, the results of which are under the care of l'Abbé LAVILLE in the Musée Océanographique at Monaco.

As Boucher de Perthes was the vindicator of Quaternary man in France, l'Abbé BOURGEOIS stands as the champion of Tertiary man. The battle over the Eolithic question has been a warm one, and its center has been in France. DESNOYERS in 1863 at Saint-Prest, l'Abbé BOURGEOIS in 1867 at Thenay, and RAMES in 1877 at Puy-Courny, are some of the protagonists. In spite of the efforts of the Belgian, RUTOT, to assume the onus of an affirmative solution, French scholars, led by BOULE, have, as a whole, refused to accept this answer.

The investigations in Neolithic France have been made by CHATELLIER in Brittany (1807) with his museum at Kernuz; BONSTETTEN, CUSSET, BAYE, l'Abbé HERMET, in the dolmens, and BERTRAND at Carnac GUEBHARD, VIRÉ, BAUDOUIN, and JACQUOT, are a few of the others interested in the prehistoric monuments of France.

The Age of Bronze was first investigated in France by CHANTRE (1876) in the Rhône Basin. COUTIL is another name to note in this horizon. DÉCHELETTE, BERTRAND, COROT, and PIROUTET, are the names of some of those associated with investigations in the Iron Age.

It is impossible to speak of the large mass of literature on prehistoric France. Special mention should, however, be made of G. DE MORTILLET'S "Le Préhistorique" (1883), EDMOND's "Musée Ostéologique" (1907), S. REINACH'S "Répertoire de l'Art Quaternaire" (1913), and DÉCHELETTE's monumental work "Manuel d'Archéologie préhistorique" (3 vols. 1898-1912).

American Archaeology. It is perhaps significant of the wide interest taken in the subject of prehistoric archaeology by France to note that American archaeology has by no means been neglected. The only complete treatise on American archaeology is that of the late M. BEUCHAT, "Manuel d'Archéologie américaine" (1912). NADAILLAC has also written two books dealing with America. Middle American archaeology, and especially the hieroglyphic writing, have been investigated by many French scientists. Among these are Brasseur DE BOURBOURG, CHARENCY, HAMY, DE ROSNY, PINART, and LEJEAL. Several French explorers have made extensive investigations in Central America. WALDECK, CHARNAY, and the Comte DE PÉRIGNY are among this number. The most famous of all Americanists is the Duc DE LOUBAT, who has established professorships in Mexican Archaeology at the Collège de France, at the University of Berlin, and at Columbia University. His masterly reproductions of many of the pre-Columbian and post-Columbian manuscripts have made these valuable documents available to students.

Ethnology and Ethnography. The investigations in these subjects started with the noble work of the Jesuit missionaries in Canada, South America, and Asia. Among other investigators in this side of anthropology are BUFFON; DE QUATREFAGES on the Pygmies; BOUGAINVILLE and D'ENTRECASTEAUX in the Pacific; DE BRAZZA, who opened up the French Congo; DUVEGRIER and SCHIRMER, in the Central Sahara; SOGONZAC, in Morocco; TILHO, at Lake Chad; and D'ORBINY, in South America.

Sociology. COMTE (1798-1857) was the founder of the modern science of Sociology. There is an illustrious list of French scholars interested in problems of Social Anthropology: GIRAUD-TEULON; LETOURNEAU on primitive marriage; DURKHEIM, HUBERT, and MAUSS, who have made "L'Année sociologique" famous; and TARDE.

Linguistics. All students of primitive languages are under obligations to ROUSSELOT for the invention of the Kymograph for recording sounds graphically. It is possible to speak of a few only of the French students of primitive languages; René BASSET, for his work on Hametic languages, and FAIDHERBE, MASQUERAY, and MOTYLYNSKY on Berber, should be mentioned.

Instruction. Anthropological instruction is offered at the Collège de France under CAPITAN, who gives courses on Mexican archaeology; at the Muséum d'Histoire Naturelle, under VERNEAU, on the prehistoric races of Europe; at the École Pratique des Hautes. Études à la Sorbonne, under MANOUVRIER, on physical anthropology, and under RAYNAUD, on the religions of pre-Columbian America; and at the École d'Anthropologie, under A. DE MORTILLET on ethnography, MAHOUDEAU on zoölogical anthropology, PAPILLAULT on sociology, VINSON on linguistics, HERVÉ on ethnology, CAPITAN, and MANOUVRIER.

Mention should be made also of the Oriental schools at Cairo, in Egypt; at Saigon, in Cochin China, and in Cambodia.

Field work in prehistoric archaeology is available, as in no other place in the world, in the river-drift and cave deposits of France. French investigators in this field have always shown a cordiality and welcome to foreign investigators. In taking into account the opportunities for work in prehistoric archaeology, it should be noted that, whereas formal instruction is seldom offered anywhere except in Paris, the extensive work of the scientific societies, which will be discussed later, is available to all properly accredited students.

Museums. France has more archaeological and anthropological museums than any other country in the world. In addition to the famous Museé des Antiquités Nationales, at Saint-Germain, there is the Musée d'Ethnographie, at the Palais du Trocadéro; the Muséum d'Histoire Naturelle; the department of Archéologie Celtique et Gauloise, at the Louvre; and the Musée de l'École d'Anthropologie. There are no less than ninety archaeological museums in France, not to mention those in the French possessions.

Scientific Societies. France has the honor of having the oldest anthropological society, the Société des Observateurs de l'Homme, established in Paris in 1800. This was succeeded by the Société ethnologique de Paris in 1839. There followed the Société d'Anthropologie in 1859, the Société d'Ethnographie in the same year, the Société américaine de France, the Société préhistorique, the Congrès préhistorique de France, and the Commission d'Étude des enceintes préhistoriques et fortifications antéhistoriques, and the Institut international d'Ethnographie et de Sociologie. All these societies have valuable series of publications.

Mention should also be made of the inauguration at Nancy in 1875 of the Congrès international des Américanistes, which has had a long and prosperous history. There should also be noted the anthropological societies of Lyon and Bordeaux, together with no less than forty associations for anthropological or archaeological research scattered through France.

Scientific Publications. In addition to the publication of Bulletins and Memoirs by many of the preceding societies, there are a large number of scientific publications devoted to anthropology. Among these are the "Revue anthropologique," a continuation of the "Revue d'École d'Anthropologie"; "l'Anthropologie," one of the foremost anthropological publications in the world; "L'Homme"; "Matériaux pour l'Histoire primitive et naturelle de l'homme"; "Revue d'Ethnographie"; "L'Ethnographie"; "L'Homme préhistorique"; "Revue des Études préhistoriques"; "Préhistorique de France"; and "Bulletin de la Commission archéologique de l'Indochine."

Libraries. The libraries of the various institutions mentioned have large collections of anthropological material. The Bibliothèque de la Société des Antiquaires de France, at the Louvre, specializes in archaeology; and the Bibliothèque Nationale has probably the largest collection of original Mexican manuscripts of any institution in the world.

In the development of Archaeology from a "handmaid of Philology" into a definite science, with its own traditions and methods of procedure (which is one of the most characteristic achievements of the nineteenth century), French scholars have played an important part.

CHAMPOLLION's discovery of the key to the Egyptian hieroglyphic writing ranks first, perhaps, in the record of their achievements; but his is only one among many prominent names. In the same field of Egyptology, MARIETTE will always be remembered as the discoverer of the tombs of the Apis bulls and of many other monuments, and as the organizer of the great museum in Cairo. And the rapid advance in knowledge of ancient Egypt in recent years is very largely due to MASPERO, the learned and broad-minded Director General of the Department of Antiquities under the Egyptian government for many years before his death in June, 1916. The exploration of the Syrian region and the study of Semitic epigraphy and archaeology owe much to RENAN, though his great fame rests on his "Life of Jesus" and other works not strictly archaeological in character. In the fascinating story of research in Babylonia and Assyria, the work of BOTTA and PLACE in exploring the palace of Sargon at Khorsabad (the first of the great palaces of this region to be excavated), and that of DIEULAFOY and SARZEC in the mound of Tello, occupy a prominent place; and the recent excavations of MORGAN at Susa and Persepolis have brought to light a mass of important material for the early history of the Orient. OPPERT, HEUZEY, and MÉNANT have led in elucidating this new material.

In the development of classical archaeology, also, the part played by French scholars is noteworthy, especially in the exploration of Greek lands. Even before the establishment of the modern kingdom of Greece, the Expedition scientifique de Morée in 1829 and 1830, under the leadership of BLOUET, collected materials for an elaborate publication devoted to the ancient ruins in the Peloponnesus, then very imperfectly known; and the explorations of TEXIER in Asia Minor in 1833-37 performed a similar service for the monuments of that region and supplemented the earlier work of English travelers:

New stimulus to such researches was given by the establishment, in 1847, of the École française d'Athènes, the first of the "foreign" schools in Athens, which served as a model for those established later by other nations in the capital of Greece. With this school most of the French classical archaeologists of the last half of the nineteenth century have at some time been associated. Members of the School have conducted many excavations in Greek lands, the most notable of which are those at Myrina (1880-82), at Delos (begun in 1873, and still in progress), and at Delphi (1892-97, with supplementary work in more recent years). Among the famous members of the School who are no longer living, mention may be made of Albert DUMONT, Director in 1875-78, a prolific writer on many aspects of ancient art, who in 1873-75 established the important French School of Archaeology in Rome; Olivier RAYET, explorer of the great temple of Apollo at Didyma in 1873 and founder of the "Monuments de l'Art antique" (2 vols., 1881-83); and Georges PERROT, a critic of unusual acumen, joint author (with the architect CHIPIEZ) of the comprehensive "Histoire de l'Art," the tenth volume of which was published just before his recent death. Other notable scholars in this field were François LENORMANT, founder of the "Gazette Archéologique" (1875-89), a voluminous writer in many fields, who was famous no less as an orientalist than as a classical archaeologist, and Henri COHEN, whose great "Description historique des monnaies frappées sous l'Empire romain" (2d ed., 8 vols., 1880-92) is an indispensable book to all workers in Roman numismatics.

The establishment of French rule in Algeria (1830) and in Tunis (1881) threw open to French archaeologists two most interesting districts, which they have explored with great success. A new Pompeii has been laid bare at Timgad. Many of the important Roman sites have been cleared of débris, museums have been established, and knowledge of Roman Africa has been greatly increased, under the leadership of GSELL, TOUTAIN, GAUCKLER, SALADIN, and CAGNAT.

Meanwhile the investigation of the monuments of France itself has been eagerly pursued. Local antiquarian societies have conducted excavations in many places and built up local museums, devoted at first to Gallic and Gallo-Roman antiquities, but later, with the growth of interest in prehistoric monuments, to relics of earlier times as well. In the development of the science of "prehistory," a leading place belongs to Gabriel DE MORTILLET, whose well-known "Préhistorique" (first published in 1883; 3d ed., 1900) was one of the first attempts at a comprehensive treatment of the ages of stone, bronze, and iron. The French government set a brilliant example to all nations in organizing an official census of all French monuments more systematic and complete than any attempted elsewhere. The Commission des Monuments Historiques has largely directed it, as well as the restorations, and has issued volumes of folio plates since 1855. The Roman period in Algeria and Tunisia has been illustrated by splendid publications, of which the monograph on Timgad is the most spectacular. In France itself ESPÉRANDIEU has given a corpus of all the Roman sculptures, and BLANCHET had described the Gallo-Roman cities. LE BLANT has collected all the early Christian sarcophagi, second in importance only to those of Italy. To VERNEILH is due the first collective study of Byzantine architecture. For the Romanesque period, just preceding the Gothic, the field was covered in the South by REVOIL and in the North by RUPRICH-ROBERT. The scientific basis for the understanding of Gothic art, not only in France, where it originated, but everywhere, was laid by QUICHERAT, and expanded by his brilliant successors, DE LASTEYRIE ("Origines de l'Architecture gothique" and many other works), and ENLART, whose comprehensive "Manuel d'Archéologie française" (1902-16), a full history of French art, is the authoritative statement of the modern school.

Almost contemporary with QUICHERAT, and far more popular, was VIOLLET-LE-DUC, whose studies in the mediaeval architecture and art of France were published in a great series of beautifully written volumes, and who had charge of the restoration of many of the greatest national monuments; the most familiar of his books is his "Dictionnaire raisonné de l'Architecture française du XIe au XVIe siècle" (10 vols., 1867-73). Another original teacher was COURAJOD, whose courses at the École du Louvre were revolutionary. The most brilliant illustrator of the art of the Renaissance in France has been PALUSTRE.

In the general post-classic field, several French scholars have done invaluable work. DE VOGÜÉ revealed a new branch of early Christian architecture in the ruined cities of Syria ("La Syrie centrale"); in Byzantine art may be noted the work of SCHLUMBERGER (with his triology of "Nicéphore Phocas," "L'Épopeé byzantine," "Basile II," his numismatic and other studies) and of DIEHL ("L'Art byzantin dans l'Italie méridionale," "Justinien," "Ravenne," etc.). DARTEIN was the first to make known the architecture of Lombardy, and BERTEAUX has done much for South Italian art in the Middle Ages. MÜNTZ is invaluable in correlating the art of the Italian Renaissance with its life and its politics. In the special field of the scientific history of Architecture, the greatest modern authority is CHOISY, whose "Histoire de l'Architecture" (1899) is completed by large special histories: "L'Art de bâtir chez les Romains," "L'Art de bâtir chez les Byzantins," and "L'Art de bâtir chez les Égyptiens."

Aside from the great Annual Congress, which meets each year in a different section of France, the two main forums for archaeology are the meetings of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres of the French Institute, and the Société Nationale des Antiquaires de France, both of which publish their Compte-rendus and the latter its Mémoires.

Instruction at the Universities. As in most other matters, so in facilities for the study of archaeology, Paris is the center of France. In Paris, naturally, are found the richest museums and libraries, and to Paris, ultimately, most of the scholars who distinguish themselves are drawn. A mere enumeration of the men who are engaged in teaching in the higher institutions of the capital is impressive.

Among the members of the Faculty of the University of Paris are: Maxime COLLIGNON, professor of Archaeology, a recognized authority on the history of Greek art. His "Histoire de la Sculpture grecque" (2 vols., 1892, 1897) is undoubtedly the best history of Greek sculpture that has yet been written. His other writings include, besides numerous articles and pamphlets, "Pergame" (1900), a semi-popular account of the earlier excavations at Pergamon, written in collaboration with the architect Pontremoli; "Le Parthénon" (1910-12), a magnificently illustrated volume on the finest of the Greek temples; "Les statues funéraires dans l'art grec" (1911). He lectures regularly on some aspect of Greek art, and offers advanced instruction for advanced students. Charles DIEHL, professor of Byzantine History, one of the most learned of modern Byzantinists. His best known works are his "Études byzantines" (1905); "Figures byzantines" (2 vols., 1906, 1908); and "Manuel d'Art byzantin" (1910). His lectures deal with different phases of Byzantine history, always with considerable emphasis on the evidence of the monuments. Maurice HOLLEAUX, Chargé de cours in Greek Literature and Epigraphy, was Director of the French School in Athens from 1904 to 1912. With his predecessor (and successor) Théophile HOMOLLE, whose long work in Greece has brought great honor to French scholarship, he is engaged in editing the official publication of the excavations at Delos, "L'Exploration archéologique de Délos" (begun in 1909). His lectures and conferences usually have to do with Greek history, with special consideration of the evidence of epigraphy. Émile MÂLE, professor of the History of Mediaeval Art, a writer of distinction in his special field. Among his works are "L'Art religieux de la fin du moyen âge en France" (1908), and "L'Art religieux du siècle en France" (3d ed., 1910). His courses deal with different aspects of the art of the Middle Ages.

From the faculty of the Collège de France, the list of names is equally impressive: Ernest BABELON, professor of Ancient and Mediaeval Numismatics, is Curator of the Department of Medals and Antiquities in the Bibliothèque Nationale, and is a recognized authority in his particular field. Among his more important writings are "Description historique et chronologique des monnaies de la République romaine" (2 VOIS., 1885, i886); "Les origines de la Monnaie" (1897); "Traité des Monnaies grecques et romaines" ( vols., 1901-10). His courses deal with different phases of the development of ancient coinage. René CAGNAT, professor of Roman Epigraphy and Archaeology, a scholar whose name is closely associated with the exploration of Roman Africa. Among his best known works are "Cours d'Épigraphie latine" (3d ed. 1898-1904); "L'Armée romaine d'Afrique et l'Occupation militaire de l'Afrique sous les empereurs" (2 vols., 1913) and many articles and books having to do with Roman Africa. His courses usually deal with Roman monuments and the interpretation of Latin inscriptions. Charles CLERMONT-GANNEAU, professor of Semitic Epigraphy and Archaeology, a scholar deeply versed in the history and the monuments of Western Asia, author of "Archaeological Researches in Palestine during the years 1873-1874" (2 vols., 1896, 1899); "Mission en Palestine et en Phénicie entreprise en 1881" (1882); "Recueil d'archéologie orientale" (8 vols., 1888-1907). He offers every year a course in recently discovered Semitic monuments. Paul FOUCART, professor of Greek Epigraphy and Archaeology, author of "Les mystères d'Eleusis" (1914). His courses commonly deal with Greek inscriptions. Stéphane GSELL, professor of North African History, who has conducted excavations in Italy as well as in his chosen province. His works include "Les Monuments antiques de l'Algérie" (2 vols., 1901); "Atlas archéologique de l'Algérie" (1911); "Histoire ancienne de l'Afrique du Nord" (vol. I, 1913; to be complete in six volumes). His courses in recent years have been devoted to Carthage and the Punic wars. The professorship of Egyptology was long held by MASPERO, by whose recent death the Faculty has lost one of its most distinguished members. His work in Paris will no doubt be ably continued by his successor, when appointed.

In the École des Hautes Études, Section des Sciences historiques et philologiques, several courses of interest to students of archaeology are offered. Among the Directeurs d'Études in the section are: Bernard HAUSSOULLIER, for Greek Epigraphy and Archaeology, well known as one of the investigators of the temple at Didyma (cf. "Didymes: Fouilles de 1895 et de 1896," in collaboration with E. Pontremoli, 1904), and as one of the authors of the "Recueil des inscriptions juridiques grecques" (2 vols., 1891-1904). His courses are devoted to the study of Greek history and legal antiquities, with reference especially to the evidence of inscriptions and the papyri. Antoine HÉRON DE VILLEFOSSE, for Latin Epigraphy and Roman Archaeology, Curator of Greek and Roman Antiquities in the Louvre, author of a "Rapport sur une mission archéologique en Algérie" (1875), "Le trésor de Bosco Reale" (1899), and numerous articles. He offers one course in inscriptions relating to the officials of the "tres Galliae." In this school, also, CLERMONT-GANNEAU offers a course in the antiquities of Palestine, Phoenicia, and Syria, and another in Jewish archaeology; some work in Egyptology is given under the direction of Paul GUIYESSE and Alexandre MORT; and studies in Assyrian Philology and Archaeology are in charge of the learned Victor SCHEIL, though his formal courses in recent years have been devoted to the interpretation of texts and to palaeography rather than to archaeology.

The École du Louvre, founded in 1882, offers an interesting three-year program of courses, intended primarily to train directors and curators of museums, but open to auditors, as well as to regularly enrolled students. The subjects covered include the archaeology of France, Oriental archaeology and ancient ceramics, Egyptian archaeology, Greek and Roman archaeology, Semitic antiquities, the history of painting, the history of mediaeval, Renaissance, and modern sculpture, the history of French art in the 17th and 18th centuries, and the history of industrial art in France. The work in Greek and Roman archaeology is under the direction of HÉRON DE VILLEFOSSE, who has already been mentioned. The professors for the other subjects are officials of the Louvre and other museums, not members of other faculties. Among them are: Georges BÉNÉDITE, Curator of Egyptian Antiquities in the Louvre, author of several works in his special field, including two of the scholarly catalogues of the Cairo Museum. Léonce BÉNÉDITE, Curator of the Musée National du Luxembourg, a prolific writer on modern art, one of the founders of the "Bulletin des Musées" and "L'Album des Peintres lithographes." Paul LEPRIEUR, Curator of the Department of Paintings in the Louvre. André MICHEL, Curator of Mediaeval, Renaissance, and Modern Sculpture in the Louvre, best known as editor of the comprehensive "Histoire de l'Art depuis les premiers temps chrétiens jusqu'à nos jours" (begun in 1905, and still in course of publication). Gaston MIGEON, Curator of the Department of the Minor Arts of the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, and Modern Times in the Louvre, an authority on the art of the East as well as that of the West. Pierre de NOLHAC, Curator of the Musée National de Versailles, editor of the "Bibliothèque littéraire de la Renaissance." He has written numerous works on Versailles and the famous persons associated with it, "Pétrarque et l'humanisme," (2d ed., 2 vols., 1907) and other works relating to the Renaissance. Edmond POTTIER, Curator of Oriental Antiquities and Ancient Ceramics in the Louvre, a critic who makes even catalogues interesting; known to classical scholars through many attractive books and articles on ancient ceramics and terra-cottas, and also as the responsible editor of all the later parts of the great Daremberg and Saglio "Dictionnaire des Antiquités grecques et romaines." Salomon REINACH, Curator of the Musée des Antiquités nationales at St.-Germain-en-Laye, who is, perhaps, the best known of all the French archaeologists, a man of vast erudition and wide interests. He has placed archaeologists of all countries under lasting obligations to him through the convenient books of reference which he has edited, the "Répertoire de la statuaire grecque et romaine" (4 vols., 1897-1910); "Répertoire des vases peints" (2 vols., 1899, 1900); "Répertoire des peintures du moyen âge et de la Renaissance" (3 vols., 1905-10); "Répertoire des reliefs grecs et romains" (3 vols., 1909-12). The breadth of his interests is suggested by this list, and even more by the titles of some of his other books: "Manuel de Philologie classique" (2d ed., 1904); "Cultes, mythes, et religions" (4 vols., 1905-12); "Orphéus; Histoire générale des Religions" (5th ed., 1905). His "Apollo," a brief but scholarly attempt to treat the history of art from palaeolithic times to the present day, has been several times re-issued and translated into other languages. He has been for many years one of the editors of the important "Revue archéologique," associated formerly with G. PERROT, now with E. POTTIER.

The École Nationale des Beaux Arts, where so many of our foremost American architects and artists have been taught, has for many years been a proof of the close union that might exist in so many other spheres. Its teaching is historical as well as technical, and it has valuable educational material in casts as well as in original works and in reconstructions of ancient monuments. Its librarian for many years, Eugène MÜNTZ, was one of the earliest, most inspiring and fruitful historians of Renaissance art; his masterpiece is the "Histoire de l'Art pendant la Renaissance" (3 vols., 1889-1891).

Finally, in the École Nationale des Chartes, intended primarily to train archivists and librarians, a course in the Archaeology of the Middle Ages is given by Eugène LEFÈVRE-PONTALIS, joint editor with Robert de LASTEYRIE of the earlier volumes of the "Bibliographie des travaux historiques et archéologiques" (1885 on), of whose works "L'Architecture religieuse dans l'ancien diocèse de Soissons au XIe et au XIIe siècles" (2 vols., 189496) is perhaps the best known.

Other Universities. Of opportunities for the study of archaeology outside of Paris it is impossible to give more than a brief account. Most of the fifteen smaller universities make some provision for archaeology and related subjects, sometimes with reference to special conditions; so, in the University of Algiers, instruction is given in the antiquities and geography of Africa and in Mohammedan civilization and the history of the Arabs. Work in "archaeology" is formally provided for at Aix; in "archaeology and the history of art," at Caen, Dijon, Grenoble, Lyon, and Toulouse. In several universities, the professors of the classics offer courses in Greek and Roman antiquities. The American student will occasionally find himself attracted to a particular place by the special attainments of one of its professors, but in such a brief account as this it is impossible to enter into details.

Museums. In special facilities for graduate work, Paris again is "facile princeps" among the cities of France. Of its more than forty museums, over twenty contain collections which are of interest to the student of archaeology and the history of art. First among them stands the great Musée du Louvre, with its wealth of monuments of sculpture, painting, and the minor arts from many regions and periods. Especially important are the collections of Greek and Roman sculpture; Egyptian, Babylonian, and Assyrian antiquities (the stele of the Hammurapi Code is here); Greek vases; and Renaissance and modern paintings and sculptures. The Musée des Antiquités nationales at St.-Germain-en-Laye contains the largest collection in the world of antiquities of France, covering the prehistoric, Gallic, Gallo-Roman, and French periods to the Carolingian epoch. In the Trocadéro are the Musée de Sculpture comparée, containing casts of important monuments of many different periods; the Musée d'Ethnographie and the Musée Indo-Chinois, the character of which is sufficiently indicated by the names. The Musée de la Bibliothèque Nationale contains not only manuscripts, early printed books, and prints, but in the Cabinet des Médailles it possesses important collections of vases, gems, coins and medals. The Musée de Cluny is devoted to the art of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance; the Musée Guimet to that of the Far East; and there are many other special museums and private collections of importance. Moreover, Paris is one of the great centers of the trade in antiquities, and the student will constantly find opportunities to acquire a knowledge of prices and methods of buying and selling objects of art.

With several of the smaller universities, museums of original materials and reproductions are connected. In these museums, many objects of archaeological interest, dating from the Old Kingdom in Egypt to modern times, are to be found. Special mention may be made of the collections at Bordeaux (Greek and Graeco-Roman sculpture and vases and monuments of early Iberic art); Lille (casts, photographs, and some original monuments); Lyon (large collection of casts and photographs from Egyptian, Greek, and Graeco-Roman monuments); Montpellier (casts from ancient sculpture, photographs, and prints); and Nancy (casts and some original monuments). Interesting collections of local antiquities, often rich in Roman and Gallic sculpture, are at Nimes, Arles, Aix, Langres, Autun, Vienne, and Narbonne.

Libraries. Among the libraries of Paris, the great Bibliothèque Nationale, with its 3,000,000 volumes, is especially rich in works on archaeology; and its 110,000 manuscripts and some 1,000,000 prints offer many opportunities for research work along documentary lines. There are, besides, several special libraries, where books not in the Bibliothèque Nationale can often be found. Among these the most important are the Bibliothèque d'Art et d'Archéologie (some 100,000 volumes); the Bibliothèque du Musée de Sculpture comparée (about 2,000 volumes and over 60,000 drawings, prints, and photographs); the Bibliothèque de l'Association pour l'Encouragement des Études grecques (about 5,000 volumes); the Bibliothèque de l'École des Beaux Arts (rich in drawings, photographs, and illustrated works); and the Bibliothèque de la, Société des Antiquaires de France (about 4,000 volumes).

Periodicals. The "Revue Archéologique" covers the entire field, with admirable summaries of investigations and discoveries everywhere. The "Gazette des Beaux Arts" occupies a similar position in the more restricted field of art history. The "Bulletin Monumental" does the same, but mainly for France. The most sumptuous medium for the publication of important works of historic art is supplied by the folios of the "Monuments Piot," an endowed periodical of the Académie des Inscriptions, whose only rival is the "Denkmäler" of the German Institute. Prehistoric studies are best represented in "L'Anthropologie" and the "Revue de l'École d'Anthropologie." The "Annales du Museé Guimet" make a specialty of the Far East; so does the "Bulletin de l'École française de l'Extrême-Orient." Other Eastern spheres are taken care of in the "Revue Egyptologique," the "Revue d'Assyriologie," the "Revue d' Archéologie Orientale," the "Revue Sémitique" and the "Mémoires" of the Mission au Caire.

Special subjects have their organs also, as the "Revue Épigraphique" and "L'Année Épigraphique"; the "Revue de Numismatique," and the "Gazette Numismatique française." Several reviews not strictly archaeological have a strong archaeological section, such as the "Revue de l'Histoire des Religions." Each of the Archaeological Schools has its special review: that at Athens, the "Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique"; that at Rome, the "Mélanges d'Archéologie et d'Histoire." Both are devoted largely to Greek and Roman studies, but give a fair share to the Christian period. A very special review is the "Revue de l'Art Chrétien." Devoted to France almost exclusively is "L'Ami des Monuments."

In all branches of Astronomy---in Geodesy, Observational Astronomy, Astrophysics, and Celestial Mechanics --- France has made noteworthy contributions. In the first three named, she has kept abreast of all progress and has often led the way; and in Celestial Mechanics, or Mathematical Astronomy, she is well-nigh supreme.

Her work in Mathematics, in developing methods of analysis and lines of attack; and in Physics, in establishing standards of wave-lengths of light, in fact in the whole field of radiation; is reflected in the progress of Astronomy. It sometimes happens, moreover, that noteworthy advances follow achievements in fields quite apart from that of the direct research; and as one such instance, GUILLAUME 's discovery of invar, in relation to the errors, due to temperature effects, which creep into all instrumental observations, must be regarded as one of the indirect influences promoting advances of prime importance.

Celestial Mechanics. Since the publication of Newton's Principia in 1686, the contributions of all other nations combined would scarcely equal in this field the contributions of France alone.

It was CLAIRAUT (1713-1783) who first published the differential equations of motion for the problem of three bodies, and their ten integrals. The formidable mathematical difficulties of this problem and the importance of its solution for Astronomy, particularly for an understanding of the motion of the moon, challenged the attention and abilities of the mathematicians of the entire world. No great mathematician, until very recent times, has escaped the charm of this problem. From France, however, has come the greater part of our present knowledge of a subject which has tested to the utmost the strength of the human intellect since the time of the immortal NEWTON. The first two analytical theories of the motion of the moon were presented on the same day to the Paris Academy by CLAIRAUT and by D'ALEMBERT (1717-1783), and these were the first efforts at an analytical solution of the problem of three bodies. D'ALEMBERT introduced even the rotation of the earth into his theories, and thus developed the theory of the precession of the equinoxes. The first rigorous solution of the problem of three bodies, due to LAGRANGE (1736-1813), is contained in a paper of great elegance published in 1772. Many other theorems of great importance were contained in his later papers. In his epochal "Mécanique analytique" he made it his boast that he had freed the subject of mechanics from geometrical intuition, and brought all of its problems into the domain of pure analysis. In striking contrast to the method of Lagrange was that of POISSON (1781-1840), who strove to develop the geometrical intuitions to the utmost in the solutions of mechanical problems.

LAPLACE (1749-1827), however, even more than Lagrange, devoted himself to the mechanics of the celestial bodies. The theory of the motion of the moon, the mutual perturbations of the planets and their satellites, and the determination of the orbits of comets, received masterly treatment in his hands; and no problem in this field escaped his critical attention. His "Traité de la Mécanique céleste," in five large volumes, will always be one of the great classics in the domain of mathematical astronomy. His Nebular Hypothesis of the origin of the solar system exercised a profound influence upon the fundamental conceptions of almost every science during the entire nineteenth century. It was the first successful effort in the modern doctrine of evolution.

The theory of the motion of the moon was a highly favored subject during the first half of the last century. The theory developed by Laplace was carried to a high degree of perfection by DAMOISEAU (1768-1846). A second theory was worked out extensively by DE PONTÉCOULANT (1795-1874); a third, and by far the most perfect theory was developed by DELAUNAY (1816-1872). The theory of Delaunay, which was the result of twenty years of constant labor, was published between 186o and 1867.

A dramatic event about the middle of the nineteenth century immortalized the names of LE VERRIER (1811-1877) of France and ADAMS of England. Their mathematical analysis led these two men independently to point to a certain position in the sky and say, "In that direction lies a planet not yet seen by mortal eyes." This prediction, verified promptly by the telescope, has been justly regarded as one of the great triumphs of man's powers of analysis. It was also under Le Verrier's directions that the theory of the perturbations of the planets was carried to its high state of perfection.

In the last decade of the last century TISSERAND (1845-) of Paris published his "Traité de la Mécanique céleste," which is today the standard work of reference in its field. It is complete in its details and embodies all the essential developments in the field of celestial mechanics up to the time of Poincaré.

The last name which will be mentioned in this field, and perhaps the greatest, is that of Henri POINCARÉ (1854-1912). His remarkable work "Méthodes nouvelles de la Mécanique céleste," furnished a great wealth of new ideas, which were developed with the very highest mathematical skill. Periodic orbits of various types, asymptotically periodic orbits, and integral invariants, were the fundamental conceptions which were examined with all of the resources of modern mathematics and with all of the rigor which modern mathematics demands. It is a modest statement to say that with POINCARÉ begins a new epoch in celestial mechanics. In addition to his contributions to the theory of the motions of the celestial bodies should be mentioned his contributions to the theory of their figures. It was CLAIRAUT who first showed that an oblate spheroid is a figure of equilibrium of a slowly rotating fluid mass. POINCARÉ showed that besides the ellipsoidal figures already known there exists an infinity of other forms corresponding to higher rates of rotation. His theorems relating to stable and unstable figures of equilibrium are of great importance. These investigations find their application not merely in the figures of such planets as Jupiter and Saturn but also in the question of the origin of binary and multiple stars.

With such a wealth of noble tradition in the field of Celestial Mechanics, it is quite safe to assume that the Universities of France, and especially of Paris, will always be a source of inspiration to students who may be interested in this field.

Geodesy. The monumental works of the French in the past are being paralleled by contemporary contributions. This is well illustrated in the geodetic work in the recent achievement of the expedition under B OURGEOIS, which has remeasured with the highest precision the "arc of Peru," ---that arc which when measured by French astronomers in an earlier century afforded the first practical proof of the ellipticity of the earth. The same scale of achievement is seen in the work of precise leveling conducted by LALLEMAND and his associates, repeating and extending the earlier work of BOURDALOUE. The French have been very active in developing the application of wireless telegraphy in longitude determinations. This is. illustrated by their observations between Paris and Poulkovo, Paris and points in Algeria, and culminating in the Paris-Washington campaign of 1913.

Observational Astronomy. France has equipped many observatories where work is being conducted, following carefully prepared plans, well organized, and actively executed. The long series of publications from these institutions-Paris, Bordeaux, Nice, Abbadie, Toulouse, Meudon, Besançon, Marseille, Lyon, Algiers---bear ample testimony of their fruitfulness. In the field of observations of position, the most notable among many excellent star catalogues is that of the Paris Observatory, in eight volumes. BOSSERT'S catalogue of proper motions is important in any work dealing with stellar motion. Double stars have been actively observed at Toulouse and by JONCKHEERE, who made many and important discoveries in this field, at the Observatoire d'Hem and later at Lille. In the discovery of celestial bodies the French observers present about sixty comets, about i8o asteroids, and many nebulae. Here the names CHARLOIS, CHACORNAC, COGGIA, PERROTIN, the brothers HENRY, STEPHAN, BORRELLY, TEMPLE, GIACOBINI, QUÉNISSET, and others, are familiar. In photometric work the numerous and careful observations of LUIZET are of especial value.

Practical Astronomy. Among astronomical instruments of French invention, mention may be made of the equatorial coudé of LOEWY and PUISEUX; the independent design of the spectroheliograph by DESLANDRES (at practically the same time as by the American HALE); the "spectroenregistreur des vitesses" of DESLANDRES; and the recent use of the "astrolabe à prisme" in the determination of latitude and time.

In spectroscopy, the French contributions to the development of the science have been very great. In solar physics, they include the discovery of the spectroscopic visibility of the solar prominences, independently of solar eclipses, by JANSSEN in 1868 (also made independently by LOCKYER in England); the recent researches of DESLANDRES (whose spectro-heliograms are in many respects of unrivalled excellence) upon the upper layers of the solar atmosphere and the relative motion of their parts. In stellar spectroscopy, they include the FIZEAU extension of the DOPPLER principle, which made possible the whole movement for the spectroscopic determination of radial velocity; the discovery of those remarkable bodies which are still known, in honor of their discoverers, as the WOLF-RAYET stars; the spectroscopic work of HAMY; and the work of FABRY and his collaborators on the Orion nebula.

In astronomical photography, France occupies a leading position. This is perhaps natural, because the development of photography is in so large a part due to the French. The Atlas of the Moon, by LOEWY and PUISEUX, is the standard in its field; the solar photographs of JANSSEN are in a class by themselves; but above all other work in importance towers the "Carte Photographique du Ciel," which, as its name implies, owes its inception largely to French influence. The headquarters of the international committee which supervises this great enterprise has always been in Paris, and zones have been undertaken and in large measure completed by the Observatories of Paris, Bordeaux, Toulouse, and Algiers. This committee has also organized other important investigations, notably the campaign of observations on the asteroid Eros in 1900-1901 which has resulted in the most precise determination of the distance of the Sun that has yet been made.

The influence of France has been directed toward friendly coöperation on the large problems of astronomy, and thus Paris naturally has been the seat of many important astronomical Conferences. At the Conference on fundamental star positions, in 1896, a uniform system of values of the fundamental constants of astronomy was adopted for use in all astronomical ephemerides. At the "Conférence Internationale des Éphémérides astronomiques," in 1911, a uniform system of presentation of astronomical data was adopted by all the national Ephemerides, and arrangements were perfected for exchange of work involved in their computation and publication; these have been among the very few fragments of international coöperation to survive the shock of the Great War.

Instruction. University of Paris. Here the principal courses of interest to the advanced student of Astronomy are the following: By ANDOYER, a distinguished student of all matters which bear upon elegance and accuracy of computation: 1914-15, Theory of eclipses; 1915-16, Elementary solutions of the fundamental problems of Celestial mechanics. By APPELL, widely known as a mathematician: 1914-15, 1915-16, Celestial Mechanics, Works of Poincaré. By PUISEUX, known for his studies on the Moon and on other astrophysical questions: 1914-15, Stars and Nebulae; 1915-16, The Sun, solar spectrum, eclipses.

Other Universities. Courses in Astronomy are given in almost all the provincial universities of France. The opportunities of most interest to the graduate student are likely to be found at

MARSEILLE, where the observatory is open to foreign men of science for research, and practical instruction for students is arranged, under the direction of FABRY, the distinguished spectroscopist, known for his work on the precise measurement of wave-lengths.

LYON, where the observatory at St.-Genis-Laval, though principally devoted to research, admits students for practical instruction in astronomy, under the care of LUIZET, one of the best-known students of variable stars.

TOULOUSE, where the observatory, which has taken an important share in the preparation of the great international photographic "Carte du Ciel," admits foreign investigators, and gives practical instruction to students in the University.

The observatories of ALGIERS and BORDEAUX, which are also doing work of the first quality, are likewise connected with the Universities situated in these cities.

French botanists have been conspicuous chiefly in the development of Taxonomy and Palaeobotany.

The first great name in the history of classification is that of TOURNEFORT (1656-1708), Professor at the Royal Gardens in Paris. He was the founder of genera; that is, he was the first who organized groups of species into the next higher category of classification. Later Antoine DE JUSSIEU Director of the Museum of Natural History in Paris, published the first natural system of classification in his "Genera Plantarum" (1789), in which he first established the category of classification known as families, which are natural groups of genera. Then Auguste DE CANDOLLE, first of Paris and later of Geneva, first grouped families into orders, the next higher category of classification, and established a sequence of families long used in all manuals of botany.

As a consequence of this early work in classification, the Herbarium of the Jardin des Plantes contains more of the early "types" of North American plants than any other European collection, and must always be consulted in any monographic work.

One of the outstanding names in the history of French botany is that of LAMARCK (1744-1829), who for twenty-five years was Director of the Royal Gardens, to which he gave the name "Jardin des Plantes," which has been used ever since. He was the author of the first "Flora of France," the pioneer manual of French botany. It was during his activities as a botanist that an unusual number of North American plants came to Paris for identification, and that the herbarium under his direction became rich in American "types." Later Lamarck became a zoölogist, and proposed the first great explanation of organic evolution, which is now usually referred to as "Lamarckism."

The fossil flora of France is one of the best preserved in the world, and this has been taken advantage of in the strong development of Palaeobotany by such leaders as BRONGNIART, who published the first extensive account of fossil plants; followed by DE SAPORTA, RENAULT, ZEILLER, BERTRAND, GRAND-EURY, and LIGNIER. This very unusual group of palaeobotanists has contributed more to our knowledge of ancient vegetation than any group of palaeobotanists in the world.

The more modern fields of botany, as morphology, plant pathology, anatomy, ecology, and plant breeding, have received important contributions from such investigators as VAN TIEGHEM, who first put the study of vascular anatomy upon its modern scientific basis; BONNIER, who was a pioneer in the study of the effect of environment on plants, especially the changes induced in the same plant by alpine and lowland habitats; GUIGNARD, who was a pioneer in the field of modern morphology, especially contributing to our knowledge of the reproduction and embryology of the higher plants, and discovering the phenomenon of double fertilization; and in addition BAILLON, DANGEARD, SAUVAGEAU, COSTANTIN, and PRILLEUX.

Instruction at Paris. The different institutions coming under the general title of the University of Paris offer unusual and varied opportunities to students of botany, especially the Sorbonne, the École supérieure de Pharmacie, and the Muséum d'Histoire Naturelle. The laboratories are well equipped and rich in material, and the investigators in charge are constant contributors to botanical literature. Among the more notable teachers and investigators now available are the following:

At the Sorbonne, BONNIER lectures upon the chemistry of plant nutrition, a fundamental subject in scientific agriculture. MOLLIARD supplements the point of view developed by BONNIER, by means of lectures in the physics of plants. Together these two courses introduce the student to the great modern field of plant physiology. In addition, MATRUCHOT is an authority upon the lower plant groups (algae, fungi, and bacteria), and includes in his work with these groups a course in plant pathology.

At the École supérieure de Pharmacie, a notable figure is that of GUIGNARD, pioneer in modern morphology, whose discoveries and technique in this field are surpassed in no laboratory. His material includes chiefly the higher plants, but associated with him is RADAIS, an authority in cryptogams. The whole range of plant morphology, therefore, is presented by these two investigators.

At the Muséum d'Histoire Naturelle a notable group of three investigators supplement one another, and offer a wide range of opportunity. LECOMTE deals with the phanerogams, while MANGIN is a specialist in cryptogams. Perhaps the unique opportunity, however, is offered by COSTANTIN in his remarkable work on the scientific culture of plants. Recently he has solved the riddle of orchid culture, discovering that an associated parasite is necessary for seed germination. This indicates the fundamental nature of his culture studies.

Opportunities Outside of Paris. There are at least three botanical institutions outside Paris that deserve special mention because of the unusual opportunities they offer.

The Laboratoire de Biologie végétale at Fontainebleau is established in that famous forest, and furnishes a unique opportunity for what may be called field studies, in contrast with laboratory studies. The investigation of the activities of plants in the open is a necessary supplement to a knowledge of their structures as revealed in the laboratory. No student of botany in France should fail to come in contact with the Fontainebleau establishment.

At Montpellier, the Institut de Botanique in connection with the university is one of the famous establishments of the world. Its well equipped laboratories and library and its extensive botanic garden have long been used in connection with important research work. The distinguishing feature of the institute is its important work in agriculture, horticulture, and forestry. In addition to the equipment referred to, there is a mountain laboratory (Laboratoire du mont Aigoual), with an elevation of 1300 meters, which is organized for the study of mountain plants and alpine conditions.

At Nancy, the Institut Agricole is a famous establishment, providing instruction in the profession of scientific agriculture in Europe or in the French colonies. Its five sections indicate the scope of the work and the opportunity: agriculture, dairy-farming, economics, colonial studies, and forestry.

The recent history of agriculture in France has been that of a general movement, at first opposed, but finally remarkably successful. No training in agriculture is complete without including some knowledge of the organization and methods developed in France.

The first movement was in the direction of agricultural education. In 1848 the government adopted a plan which provided agricultural teaching of three grades: (1) elementary practical instruction, (2) secondary practical and theoretical instruction, and (3) advanced training in the Institut National Agronomique. From the beginning good results were obtained, but opposition led to the suppression of the Institut, and to a reduction in the number of the other schools. Later, through the efforts of Eugène TISSERAND, a successful organization of agricultural education was established, and the Institut National Agronomique was re-established with a competent staff, and since 1876 has been demonstrating its great usefulness.

Secondary instruction is given in the three great central schools of Grignon, Montpellier, and Rennes; horticulture is cared for by the École Nationale d'Horticulture, founded at Versailles in 1874; while the special needs of various regions have been met by secondary schools. Between the farm schools, intended to train skilled laborers in the practical side alone, and the secondary schools, there seemed to be too wide an interval, and to meet this deficiency a law was passed in 1875 organizing experimental agricultural schools to assist in the training of farmers' sons and daughters. Traveling schools also went from district to district, giving similar instruction in short courses.

In 1879 a law was passed providing for professors and administrators of agriculture to visit the various districts, and from that time they have played an important rôle in organizing short courses, conferences, agricultural societies, mutual insurance societies, farmers' mutual loan companies, and organizations promoting coöperation in buying, selling and producing. Also demonstration fields and experiment stations, together with a variety of experimental research laboratories, were established in various parts of the country.

The progress of agricultural education has been aided largely through the efforts of agricultural societies. The Société Nationale d'Agriculture, founded in 1761, is foremost among these societies, and is now very properly called the Académie d'Agriculture. Its annals for a century and a half have contained the names of eminent scientists, who have contributed to the development of agriculture through chemistry, physics, botany, and zoölogy. It is still of great assistance in bringing the results of science to the solution of soil problems.

Several other large societies are grouped about the Académie d'Agriculture, ranging from La Société des Agriculteurs de France, the oldest of the societies, with 9000 members scattered throughout the country, to the recently founded Société Nationale d'Encouragement à l'Agriculture. La Société Nationale d'Horticulture de France for 25 years has been prominent in caring for the horticultural interests, while vine growers are represented by La Société des Viticulteurs de France. About these large organizations are grouped very numerous smaller societies, all contributing to the cultivation of interest in agriculture by means of bulletins, meetings, and fairs.

A summary of the advancement in agricultural education in France during the past 40 years is as follows: establishment of education in scientific agriculture through the Institut National Agronomique; providing for secondary agricultural education in national schools; organization of primary agricultural education by establishing schools of practical agriculture; creation of a complete staff of professors to teach the best and most useful methods in rural communities; inauguration of practical agricultural instruction for girls and popular instruction for adults through traveling schools of short courses, held during the winter; dissemination and popularization of agricultural knowledge by agricultural societies; supplementing theoretical and practical instruction by demonstrations at various fairs, permitting farmers to know and appreciate the annual advance of agricultural science.

Another notable feature of French agriculture is agricultural coöperation. While only a minority of the farmers have come in direct contact with the instruction provided, economic stress has tended to bring all the farmers together. In 1884 a law was passed for the organization of professional syndicates, and by an amendment it was extended to include the farmers. The purpose of the agricultural syndicate was to study and defend the economic and other interests of the farmers. One of the first undertakings was the purchase on a large scale of fertilizers, thus giving the small farmer the advantages of reduced prices, guaranteed quality, and low freight charges upon this important commodity. The scope of these syndicates was extended later to include large purchases of selected seed, well bred farm animals, agricultural machinery, and insecticides. This not only resulted in economy from wholesale buying and shipping, but had a beneficial educational effect in the introduction of improved seed, better cattle, tools, and methods. Later, attention was directed to conditions of marketing, and many syndicates collected and graded the crops of their members, marketing them to much greater advantage and gaining the further advantage of low freight charges upon car-load shipments.

The syndicates have proved great social factors in bringing together, upon an entirely equal footing, proprietor, tenant, and laborer, under the motto "All for each, and each for all." In 1887 there were 214 syndicates; in 1805 the number was 1188, including 400,000 adherents; and at the present time there are more than 6000 organizations, including nearly 1,000,000 farmers.

Another feature of agriculture in France is the farm loan system, which created a system of credit for farmers somewhat different from commercial credit. Mutual farm loan companies have been established by members of the farmers' syndicates. These loan companies were made possible by advances from the State, through the Bank of France. In 1910 there existed 98 central companies and 3000 local companies, comprising 152,000 members; and the plan has proved to be extremely successful.

Before 1898 no special encouragement was given to agriculture by mutual insurance societies; then laws were passed authorizing insurance societies to benefit by the law in reference to rural syndicates, and in 1912 there were 13,000 local mutual organizations insuring against loss by death of cattle or by fire. A series of guarantees is provided, extending from the local societies, through central companies, to "The Central Trust of the Syndicate of Farmers of France."

The whole syndicate movement in France has been a happy means of grouping all the vital forces of agriculture into a common and democratic movement. In consequence, the condition of the rural population has been immensely improved, both in spirit and in product.

The standing of agriculture in France was improved in 1881 by the appointment of a Minister of Agriculture. Before that time the interests of agriculture were entrusted successively to the Minister of the Interior, of Commerce, and of Public Works. The Minister of Agriculture has, among his other duties, charge of the supervision of agricultural education, coöperation, and improvements; of horse-breeding and veterinary education; of suppressing frauds in agricultural products. The improvements under the regime of ministers of agriculture have been marked. Among the means adopted for encouraging agriculture may be cited the organization of central and local fairs, awarding prizes for crops, investigations of the suitability of farm machinery, encouragement of the industrial use of denatured alcohol, and the collection and publication of annual statistics of farm products.

The forestry school of Nancy, founded in 1824, became more truly a scientific institution when in 1888 its students were required to present diplomas from the Institut National Agronomique for their matriculation. Other schools for advanced and secondary work in forestry were also established. The Forest Service administered the State forests, and at the same time had charge of projects for the reforestation of mountains and the conservation of woodlands. Since 1880 the State forests have been increased 22 per cent., and each year 7000 hectares are reforested. The rural hydraulic service has charge of drainage and irrigation projects and the flood control of streams. The development and utilization of the water-power of the wooded mountains through easily transportable electric power has received attention, and as a result many thousands of horsepower are available from the French Alps. Recently efforts have been made to utilize some of this power in promoting rural industries.

The remarkably effective organization of the agricultural interests of France deserves the careful study of all students of agriculture in this country.