PREFACE

This paper was originally written by Edward Stewart when he was with the Human Relations Resource Office at George Washington University in Washington, D.C. It was revised during the time he was a Research Professor with the Graduate School of Public and International Affairs at the University of Pittsburgh (1966-69) and revised again since his move in 1969 to the University of Delaware to teach Intercultural Communication. Thus it is the end product of a long process of thought, research and practical experimentation.

For Americans, Dr. Stewart's paper provides a solid and, for many, a new cross-cultural perspective on their own beliefs and behavior. In it he speaks directly to the questions any American concerned with cross-cultural relations or intercultural communications must answer.

It is hoped that it will also contribute to the growing crystallization of cross-cultural psychology and intercultural communication as fields of study. There is already ample evidence of increasing interest in them. The International Communications Association has an intercultural Communication Division. The Speech Communication Association set intercultural communication as the theme of its 1970 annual conference. The Regional Council now publishes a newsletter on intercultural communications programs. Established in the fall of 1970 and titled Communique, the initial response to this newsletter has been striking, both in numbers and in the varieties of disciplines and professions from which interest has been derived. The Cross-Cultural Psychology Newsletter is published in Japan and the Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology appeared this fall. A proposal has been made for an international cross-cultural psychology association.

Dr. Stewart was born in Sao Paolo, Brazil, and came to the U.S. as a boy. He served in the U.S. Army in Europe during the Second World War and later took his Ph.D. in Psychology at the University of Texas. He has taught at Lehigh University in the areas of perception theory and social psychology. In 1959 he joined the Human Resources Research Office of the George Washington University and in 1962 began to work principally in the area of intercultural communication. He has continued his research and teaching specialization in this area since then.

Dr. Stewart has served as a consultant on intercultural communication with the Peace Corps, the Agency for International Development, the Foreign Service Institute, the Military Assistance Institute, the Business Council for International Understanding, the American University, the Regional Council for International Education, and Westinghouse Corporation. He has made a major contribution to the field of cross-cultural training by developing a simulation exercise using non-American actors to role-play "contrast-Americans" in scenarios based on the overseas experiences of technical advisors. He has also published a variety of reports and papers in this field.

The Regional Council is pleased to include this important contribution to intercultural studies in its series, Dimensions of International Education.

David S. Hoopes
Executive Director
Intercultural Communications Network of the
Regional Council for International Education

 

TABLE OF CONTENTS

AUTHOR'S INTRODUCTION PART I. CONCEPTUALIZATION OF THE PROBLEM 1. The Cross-Cultural Problem Sources of Information Common Characteristics of Non-Western Countries Cultural Aspects of Overseas Missions Cultural Aspects of Counseling Foreign Students 2. Cultural Differences Patterns of Perception Assumptions and Values Cultural Dimensions and Diversities Values and Cultural Norms Behavioral Prescriptions PART II. PATTERNS OF THINKING 1. Differences in Style 2. Language: Clarity and Ambiguity 3. Dichotomies and Explanation PART III. AMERICAN ASSUMPTIONS AND VALUES 1. Form of Activity Orientation to Action Variations of Form of Activity Work and Play Temporal Orientation Motivation Measureable Achievement Competition and Affiliation The Limits of Achievement: The Individual The Limits of Ascription: Total Power 2. Form of Social Relations Characteristics of Personal Relations Equality Confrontation Informality and Formality Friendship Personalization and Depersonalization Cooperation and "Fair-play" Need To Be Liked Specialization of Roles 3. Perception of the World Man and Nature Man's Relationship to Nature Materialism and Property Progress Progress and Optimism in Contrast to Limited Good Progress and the Concept of Time Quantification 4. Perception of the Self and the Individual Dimensions of the Self Individualism and Individuality Self-Motivation Resistance to Systems of Thought Cultural Change PART IV. APPLICATIONS 1. Patterns of Thinking and Social Conflict 2. The Capital Self 3. Form of Activity and Third Culture 4. Preventing Disease 5. A New Technique is Integrated with the Cultural Pattern 6. Conclusions BIBLIOGRAPHY

 

AUTHOR'S INTRODUCTION

The objective of this report is to supply a perspective on some of the cross-cultural problems encountered by American advisors, academicians and technicians overseas or by Americans such as foreign student advisors working in an intercultural milieu in the United States. The approach has been to formulate the cross-cultural problems as differences between patterns of thinking, assumptions and values held by such Americans and those held by the foreigners with whom they work. These cultural differences often produce misunderstandings and lead to ineffectual activity in face-to-face communications. A concerted effort on the part of Americans to understand them would probably enhance their effectiveness overseas and in the United States. It is postulated, however, that achievement of this goal would require that the advisors first know American culture. Since the typical American lacks a clear understanding of his own culture, there is a need for a delineation of the patterns of thinking, assumptions and values that frequently affect advising and consulting activities overseas and at home.

Although a critical examination of obstacles to cross-cultural communication suggests, in many instances, how Americans should act, it is not our objective here to prescribe behavior. The purpose, rather, is to present schematic descriptions of some important aspects of American culture and to show some of their consequences for cross-cultural communication.

The report is intended not only for foreign student advisors and for Americans working or training to work overseas, but also for instructors and trainers of AID technicians, Peace Corps volunteers, and others concerned with problem of cultural change. Gearing the treatment thus to operational needs has resulted in the deliberate skirting of numerous issues concerning the meaning of "culture," "values," and other matters of interest primarily to the social science scholar rather than the practitioner.

In the first chapter the cross-cultural problem encountered by American advisors and consultants are described briefly and in general terms. Brief mention is made, also, of the sources used in developing the description and conceptualization of American culture. In chapter 2 of Part I the concepts patterns of thinking, assumptions and values are discussed with a view to dispelling the confusion which has surrounded the uses of these terms. In particular, a distinction is made between assumptions and values which have reference to actual behavior, and those which are invoked "ritualistically" (frequently for emotional reasons) and which often fail to describe the real actions of the individual. The term cultural norms will be used to classify the latter.

In Part III substantive descriptions of American assumptions and values are provided. Each chapter in this section deals with one of the following topics (which may be seen as the individual components of a cultural pattern or system of assumptions and values): form of activity, form of relation to others, perception of the world and perception of the self. These components approximate continuous dimensions (rather than discrete categories), in terms of which any given culture may be represented. It is important to note that within the same culture several variations of the same component normally occur. Despite this variety, each culture is usually typified by a dominant form of each component. In American culture those values commonly associated with the American middle-class are seen as dominant. Clearly, however, these do not encompass all the significant values and value systems shared by large numbers of Americans.

The theme of relativity of assumptions and values is stressed throughout the report by presenting American cultural characteristics in conjunction with variations from other cultures or from American culture itself.

The final section, Part IV, records some of the consequences of the cultural differences in the face-to-face interaction between Americans and their counterparts.

An effort has been made throughout this report to employ the concepts most familiar to trainees, students, and advisors. The language and concepts of social scientists have been avoided as far as possible when they do not have familiar connotations. But what is hoped to be a practical gain represents a sacrifice in theoretical coherence. Specifically, the writer has relied extensively upon the work of Florence R. Kluckhohn without, however, adopting her complete system of theoretical concepts. The writer assumes responsibility for misrepresentations which may appear as a result.

The influence of George M. Foster is also pervasive throughout parts of this report. His work, and that of Robin M. Williams, Jr., have been freely used, but the interpretations made are the responsibility of this writer.

Florence Kluckhohn, George Foster and Robin Williams, Jr., have provided substantive comments on an original draft. The writer is indebted to them for their incisiveness, kindness and patience in reviewing and is apologetic to Florence Kluckhohn and George Foster, in particular, for distorting their writings to fit the mold of specific objectives.

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