GREAT BRITAIN was slow to develop a program of cultural relations with other countries. After the First World War, while Germany, France, and Italy rapidly increased their programs of cultural propaganda abroad, Great Britain continued to remain aloof, although she had carried on an outstanding propaganda program during the war. The Ministry of Information concerned with publicity in neutral and Allied countries, which was established by the British Government in the last years of the war, together with the Department for Enemy Propaganda, developed a most successful program.(1) In spite of the importance of this work, it was abolished at the close of hostilities. A suggestion made by Lord Northcliffe and others that a propaganda program for peacetime be developed was rejected by Lloyd George, and for many years Great Britain had no such government program abroad.(2)

Meantime, British representatives and members of British trade missions in many parts of the world became increasingly aware of the harm that was being done to British interests abroad by the propaganda activities of certain Great Powers, and repeatedly made recommendations that the British Government take steps to counteract these activities. After a long and careful consideration of the problem, plans were laid for a British program, which stressed cultural relations rather than cultural propaganda. It was not until November, 1934, however, that, on the advice of the Foreign Office, the British Council for Relations with Other Countries was established to carry on a program of cultural expansion or "national interpretation" abroad. The Council began in a small way under the able leadership of Lord Tyrrell, former Ambassador to Paris, and with a carefully selected staff.

On March 20, 1935, an announcement of the formation of the Council was made in The Times of London. It began as follows:

A new body, the British Council for Relations with Other Countries, is being established to promote abroad a wider knowledge of the English language, literature, art, music, science, educational institutions and other aspects of our national life, and thereby to encourage a better appreciation of Great Britain and to maintain closer relations between this and other countries.

His Majesty's Ambassadors and Ministers abroad and special trade missions to various parts of the world have repeatedly recommended that some central body should be set up to undertake this task on a wider scale than hitherto and to encourage and coordinate the activities of existing societies.

To carry out this work the Council, under the leadership of Lord Tyrrell, formerly Ambassador to Paris, and the vice-chairmanship of Sir Arthur Balfour, formerly President of the Association of British Chambers of Commerce, has been provisionally established to include:

Sir Alan Anderson (Orient Line), Sir Edwin Diller (Principal of London University), Mr. William Graham (Chairman of London Illustrated Newspapers, Limited), Mr. John Masefield (Poet Laureate), Mr. J. W. Ramsbottom (Director of the City of London College), Sir Eugene Ramsden, M.P. (Chairman of the Trade and Industry Committee of the House of Commons), Mr. E. Rootes (Vice-President of the Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders) and M. H. J. U. Woolcock (Chairman of the Overseas Committee, Federation of British Industries).(3)

In addition, continued the statement in The Times, the Council included members nominated by the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs and for the Dominions, by the Presidents of the Board of Trade and of the Board of Education, and by the Secretary of the Department of Overseas Trade. The Association of British Chambers of Commerce and the Federation of British Industries, as well as other professional cultural organizations, had announced their intention of affording full support to the work of the Council.

Many countries which attached importance to their own language, traditions, and culture, and to the good political and commercial relations which followed from a proper appreciation of these by other countries, had been actively engaged in work of this character for many years past.

The Government had expressed its willingness to propose to Parliament the grant of £6,000 from public funds for the financial year 1935-36 as a contribution toward the much larger sum which would be required in order to perform effectively a task of urgent national importance.(4)

Following the above statement, a correspondent of The Times added some enlightening comments. The importance of the work of the strong council which Lord Tyrrell had established was greatly increased by the knowledge that the British Government was giving both its moral and material support and cooperation, the correspondent said, and continued:

Not even our most severe isolationist can wish to deprive us of social and commercial intercourse with other countries. Elementary common sense dictates that such intercourse should be made as friendly and helpful as possible.

No country to-day can expect to be understood by others if it remains aloof and passive. Foreign policy alone, however wisely conceived, cannot remove misunderstandings unless it can work on a background of knowledge. Some form of national publicity, if wisely directed, with the Government, education and industry in a working partnership, can do much to provide a fruitful ground of policy.(5)

On March 23, a leading article in The Times on the British Council suggested that it was a happy thought to give the title of British Council for Relations with Other Countries to the new body, for culture was a word that came "clumsily and shyly off the Englishman's tongue." Foreign Governments, the editorial continued, had long ago understood "the value of such private diplomacy" and had given it support. Then, if ever, when political and economic difficulties encouraged an isolationist mentality, was the moment to follow their lead.(6)

Lord Tyrrell, in a letter to the editor of The Times, March 26, under the heading, "Promotion of the British Outlook," further explained the work of the Council.

I have accepted the chairmanship of the new council because my experience both in the Foreign Office and abroad has shown me how great is the need of some central organization in London, not only to do a little thinking on the subject themselves, but to call public attention to it, so that we may build up a body of opinion here which will see that some really constructive work is achieved that will present this country in its true light abroad. The subject is, of course, immense, and the British Council can only attempt to make a beginning on certain definite lines. We have felt that the teaching of English should be in the forefront of our programme, and we have, therefore, considered a number of ways in which English studies might be encouraged. But we are fully alive to the fact that the learning of our language is merely opening the door to something much wider, namely, to an appreciation of that special British contribution to the arts and sciences, to education, and to those institutions through which our country is ordered and administered. I do not hesitate to say that with a large part of the world in its present bewildered and excited state there was never a greater opportunity and need for us to present our own outlook on life to other countries, so that it may be thrown into the common pool as a definite contribution to whatever ideas the present and coming generations are to bring forth.(7)

A meeting of the British Council for Relations with Other Countries was held at St. James Palace on July 3, 1935. The Prince of Wales, a patron of the Council, made an appeal for the generous support of individuals and firms, saying that every penny given for the work would be well spent.

As reviewed in The Times for July 4, 1935, the following points were brought out in the meeting:

Lord Tyrrell, submitting a report of the activities of the Council during the first seven months of its existence, said that they had been encouraged by "a grant from the Treasury of £6000, by the active collaboration of five government departments besides the Foreign Office, and by donations from Lord Wakefield, Sir Herbert Grotrian, and Mr. William Graham, while one or two large industrial firms and publishers had given practical effect to this sympathy in the form of contributions and the Book and Music Publishers Associations had given valuable support." With the small funds available, the Council had been able to do little more than lay the foundations for the work of the future. Lord Tyrrell mentioned a few of the activities which the Council had carried on. A party of Swedish landowners and gardening experts had been brought to Great Britain to study gardening. Small grants had been made for existing libraries in Norway, Sweden, Denmark, and Finland and a few scholarships and fellowships awarded. The Council was especially interested in encouraging the flow of students from overseas for general and technical education.

The Prince of Wales said that he was in warm sympathy with the aims which the Council hoped to achieve. Other countries appreciated the importance of making themselves better known to the world, he said, and continued: "Let us, therefore, not be backward in undertaking a task of supreme importance to this country---not merely in a narrow nationalist spirit, but in the general interest of international understanding and sympathy."(8)

Although it had only relatively small funds at its disposal, the work of the Council began to develop rapidly. Lord Tyrrell became President of the Council and Lord Eustace Percy, M.P., was made Chairman in 1936.(9)

Lord Eustace Percy, however, retired from the chairmanship in July, 1937, to undertake other duties, at which time he submitted a report on the work of the Council for the period from April 1, 1936 to July 15, 1937. According to this report, the Council "seeks to discharge a whole range of functions which in other countries are carried out partly by direct Government action and partly by semi-official organizations with large Government subventions."

The aims and objects of the British Council were stated as follows in the report:

To make the life and thought of the British people more widely known abroad; and to promote a mutual interchange of knowledge and ideas with other peoples. To encourage the study and use of the English language, both in foreign countries and in the Crown Colonies and Dependencies; to assist overseas schools in equipping themselves for this purpose; and to enable students from overseas to undertake courses of education or industrial training in the United Kingdom. To bring other peoples into closer touch with British ideals and practice in education, industry and government; and to make available to them the benefits of current British contributions to the sciences and technology; and to afford them opportunities of appreciating British literature, fine arts, drama and music. To cooperate with the self-governing Dominions in strengthening the common cultural traditions of the British Commonwealth.(10)

There had been an expansion of the Council's income which was first increased from £15,000 to £30,000 and then to a total grant-in-aid of £60,000 for 1937-1938. An important step was taken when, in July, 1936, the first general meeting of the Council resolved to submit a petition to the Privy Council for the grant of a Royal Charter.

From the beginning one of the main activities of the Council had been the encouragement of British Institutes and Foreign British Societies. It aided the two well-known British Institutes at Paris and Florence, as well as a number of societies in Europe and in Latin America, such as the well-established Cultural Societies at Buenos Aires and Montevideo. It had begun to organize new enterprises, notably the Anglo-Egyptian Union at Cairo, the Cultural Societies at Lima, Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo and Santiago, and the Sino-British Cultural Association at Nanking.

The Council either founded or assisted in maintaining certain professorships or lectureships at foreign universities. In some cases this included the management of Institutes connected with the universities, such as the Institute at the University of Coimbra.

Most of the grants for British schools abroad were given in the eastern Mediterranean countries.

In dealing with books and periodicals the Council's aim was: (a) to build up general libraries of English books; (b) to supply the lack of British scientific works in specialist libraries; (c) to increase the circulation of British periodicals; and (d) to supply bibliographical information and encourage book reviews in the foreign press.

Following Lord Eustace Percy, Lord Lloyd of Dolobran became the third Chairman of the Council in July, 1937.

As tensions grew in Europe and the propaganda programs of certain of the foreign powers became more violently anti-British, the British Parliament began to take an increasing interest in the problem of British publicity abroad. Early in February, 1938, Mr. Emrys-Evans asked the Prime Minister whether, in view of the importance of British publicity abroad, the Government would give this matter urgent consideration. The Prime Minister (Mr. Chamberlain answered:

For some time past H. M. Government have been impressed with the desirability of ensuring that the fullest and most effective use is made of the various efforts now being conducted to spread a better understanding of this country and of the British people abroad. It has now been decided to set up a coordinating committee whose function it will be to prevent overlapping and, by exchange of information among the bodies engaged in various forms of publicity abroad, to coordinate their programs and activities. His Majesty's Government have appointed Sir Robert Vansittart, Chief Diplomatic Adviser, to be Chairman of this committee and they propose to invite representatives of other bodies engaged on work of this character, such as the British Broadcasting Corporation,(d) the British Council and the Travel Association(e) to serve on the committee.(11)

On February 16, 1938, there was a long debate in the House of Commons on the supply of British news abroad, during which the following motion was passed:

That, having regard to the increasing activity of certain foreign governments in the field of propaganda, political and cultural, by means of the press, broadcasting, and films, this House being of the opinion that the evil effects of state propaganda of a tendentious or misleading character can best be countered, not by retaliation, but by the widespread dissemination of straightforward information and news based upon an enlightened and honest public policy, urges the Government to give the full weight of its moral and financial support to schemes to further the wider and more effective presentation of British news, views, and culture abroad.(12)

Mr. Lees-Jones, who made the original motion, began the discussion with the statement:

Up to 1914, we in this country were somewhat indifferent to the opinions of other nations and peoples, with the result that we took few steps to advertise ourselves. Pride of race was partly responsible. Also we thought that our position in the world was quite sufficient to make our actions and views speak for themselves. We have been inclined to assume that others would understand our motives, and, to some extent, I think we were justified, in that at that time we were a democratic country, in the midst of democratic countries. Films and wireless were in their infancy, and newspapers, which were the principal media of discussion of world news, were untrammelled by government control. Today things are different. In some countries parliamentary government exists in name only. Their institutions have no power of government, and are subjugated to the will of a dictator. The democratic form of government has gone, and with it, that freedom of exchange of views which resulted in a greater knowledge of world affairs and culture as a means of engendering knowledge and understanding of each other's views, actions, motives and attainments.(13)

In earlier days, continued Mr. Lees-Jones, when there was freedom of the press, there was little distortion of authentic news, but an entirely erroneous picture of the British people was being given through the subsidized and controlled news services of certain ministers of propaganda. He added:

What media have we to combat this propaganda, and how can they best be utilized? There are four media at the moment---first, the film; second, methods of cultural propaganda; third, wireless; and, fourth, newspapers and printed journals.(14)

Mr. Harold Nicholson, supporting the motion of Mr. Lees-Jones said that the question of propaganda was a new, multiple, and highly dangerous instrument in international policy. It was an instrument which was uncongenial to the British. He did not want to be self-righteous, but propaganda was often based on avoidance of the truth and in general British people objected to untruths. In a national emergency the British could be as untruthful as, or more untruthful than, anybody else. During the World War they had lied damnably. He thought that such propaganda had done a lot of harm and he would not like to see such propaganda again. Anyone reading Mein Kampf would find that the impression made by British propaganda upon Hitler was damaging, for the German dictator admired it greatly. A number of books were being published in the United States on the subject of the effects and methods of British propaganda in 1917-1918. That was unfortunate, but that was in wartime. In peacetime the ordinary Englishman did not like telling lies.

The Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster (Earl Winterton), speaking for the Government, stated that neither the Government, the House nor the country could afford to ignore the use of publicity and propaganda in which the majority of foreign Governments engaged, sometimes quite legitimately but sometimes decidedly otherwise, where the results were detrimental to British interests. When statements were made by official or semi-official sources abroad which were inaccurate as regarded British policy, intentions, the state of the country, or such parts of the Empire as were directly governed from Great Britain, they must take steps to contradict them. They must, however, bear in mind the very proper limitations imposed by their democratic constitution which prevented anything like a censorship of news, and also the traditional British reputation for fairness and moderation in statement which had always been a bulwark of British prestige abroad.

After discussing the use of broadcasting in counter-propaganda against statements which were inimical to British interests, and after deciding to use foreign-language broadcasts, in which a beginning had already been made, Earl Winterton said:

Now I come to a matter which will have the sympathy of the whole House, and that is the work which is being done by the British Council to promote cultural and educational activities in foreign countries. The Council consists of official and unofficial members, and the Leaders of both Oppositions are members of it. It has the full backing of His Majesty's Government, who are satisfied that it is the right way of handling these matters, and that the Council is doing admirable work within the limits of its budget. It receives a sum from the Treasury and it has secured also some financial and other assistance from private and commercial sources. . .

In the work of the British Council is to be found, in my judgment, a form of propaganda or publicity to which no one can take exception . . . . I should like to make an appeal, standing in this box, for all possible support of the British Council.(15)

While the war clouds grew darker over Europe, the British Council increased its activities but made no important changes in their general direction.

AT THE outbreak of the Second World War the projected Ministry of Information came into being. As the Ministry of Information and the British Council were both engaged in "presenting the British case abroad," there soon arose the problem of differentiating the activities of the two organizations. The Committee on National Expenditure (1940), however, stated that there was a fundamental distinction between the Ministry of Information and the British Council. The Ministry of Information was set up to carry on a program of propaganda abroad, while the British Council was restricted to the cultural sphere and did not undertake direct propaganda. The Committee went on to state that whereas the Ministry of Information was a wartime organization, whose function was to pass with the ending of the war, the British Council was "a permanent institution charged with the duty of spreading British ideals of life equally in times of peace as in war."(16)

During the first year of the war the British Council, continuing to receive favorable consideration in Parliament, was able to continue its work and to adapt it to war needs.

In 1940 the Council was recognized as a permanent element in national affairs and was given a grant of a charter of incorporation. By virtue of this Royal Charter, the report of the British Council (1940-41) explained, "the Council became a body corporate with powers, amongst other powers, to accept, hold, and dispose of money in furtherance of its objects, including sums voted by Parliament to that end. It was authorized to accept any trusts in furtherance of those objects and was given licence, subject to the usual limitations, to acquire real property." The report continued:

The powers of the Council are vested in its Executive Committee, including the power to appoint a Chairman and Secretary-General, whose names, however, must previously have been approved by the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs. The Chairman, who is the administrative head of the Council, holds office for such period as the Secretary of State approves.

The following members of the Government have the right each to nominate a member of the Executive Committee:

The Lord President of the Council.
The Chancellor of the Exchequer.
The Secretaries of State for Foreign Affairs, the Colonies and Scotland.
The Presidents of the Board of Trade and of the Board of Education.
The Secretary of the Department of Overseas Trade.

Members of the Council, as distinct from members of the Executive Committee, are elected from time to time by the Committee. Membership of the Council, which imposes no obligation, is confined to persons of distinction in those aspects of the national life with which the Council finds itself concerned. Members become entitled to attend an annual general meeting for the purpose of receiving a report of the affairs of the Council. They are entitled also to attend such other general meetings as are provided for by the By-Laws of the Council.(17)

To assist the Executive Committee, there was a system of advisory committees which placed at the Council's disposal a body of expert opinion. Although the Council received some voluntary donations and subscriptions, almost all of its funds were derived from a grant voted by Parliament and carried on the Foreign Office vote. "It will be clear therefore," continued the report, "that the Council's work must be carried on under the supervision of the Foreign Office." The basic aim of the Council was clearly stated: "Under the terms of the Royal Charter, the Council exists for the purpose of promoting a wider knowledge of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the English language abroad, and developing closer cultural relations between the United Kingdom and other countries, for the purpose of benefiting the British Commonwealth of Nations." (18)

The outbreak of the war caused the British Council to give up some of its activities and to change the character of others. In the report of the British Council, 1940-1941, the following statements about the pre-war work of the Council were included:

The annihilation of distance in the modern world, the other peaceful and war-like inventions of the age, have brought the different races and civilizations of the world rapidly and violently together.

The constant interchange of knowledge, ideas, and discoveries was always the life of Europe in its wiser days. It is rightly now no less the life of the world. Neighbourliness, as it may be called, has spread in widening circles since the days when a man in the next county was a foreigner, until our neighbours are in the Americas and the China Seas, no less than in Western Europe. To foster that interchange in the interests of peaceful and happy international relations is rightly to be regarded as a function of the prudent state. And that is the place of the British Council in time of peace.

Such national interpretation, a happier phrase than cultural propaganda, implies the employment by the state, to the national advantage, of the whole cultural resources of the nation. The term 'cultural resources' may be deemed to include all achievements of the nation past and present in the spheres of intellect, art, science, government, education, and invention, and that in tangible but powerful force, the national personality, as manifested in a country's past history and present way of life.(19)

The Council made rapid progress in developing its program under the chairmanship of Lord Lloyd. His death in February, 1941, was a great loss, for as a leader he had inspired confidence and he had given "energy and inspiration" to its work. It was not surprising that questions should soon be raised about the activities of the Council and about its future leadership.

In the debate on Supply, Diplomatic Services, in the House of Commons on February 18, 1941, when a supplementary sum of £200,000 was asked for the Council, a more critical approach was made and its future seriously considered. The possibility of merging the British Council with the Ministry of Information was discussed but such action was considered inadvisable.(20)

Miss Rathbone, representing the Combined English Universities, suggested that, while the emphasis of the Council's work seemed to be on spreading British culture in the more humanistic sense through British literature, art, music, and ideas, the people whom she had met in the Balkan states wanted facts which showed what democracy was, how it had grown, and what it aimed to do for the world.

Mr. Creech Jones thought that the work of the Council should be more widely based and asked if any of the Council's money would be available for representatives of British colonial peoples to come to Great Britain and see something of the working of British institutions, and if facilities would be provided for representatives of the British Trade Union or cooperative movements to go to other countries and to the British colonies in order that a more representative picture of British life, cultural institutions, social movements, and economic organizations and development should be presented to them.

Mr. Butler, speaking for the Foreign Office, said:

I must make it perfectly clear that the British Council is an all-party body; it does not exist for any sort of political reason, nor has it any political bias whatsoever. It includes representatives of all parties, and you have only to read the list of members of the Executive Council to see from what wide ranges of interest representatives are drawn. I think it is essential to make it quite clear that the picture of Britain which the British Council seeks to present abroad is a real and genuine picture of Britain as a whole . . . . In fact, the object of the Council and of its late chairman was to make the name of Britain known and respected abroad, and the name of Britain has never been one which could be interpreted in a narrow or shallow way.(21)

Chief Methods of the Council

In the comprehensive report of the work of the British Council for the financial year 1940-41 the chief methods of the Council were described as follows:

1. The formation of new or the encouragement of existing British cultural centres abroad. These are the British Institutes.

2. The encouragement of new or existing Anglophil Societies abroad. These Societies, varying greatly in size, are combinations of persons interested in Great Britain. They spring from the soil of the country in which they are situated and are controlled by, and the property of, the citizens of that country.

3. The encouragement, and if need be the formation, of British schools abroad.

4. The encouragement of English studies in foreign schools and universities.

5. The encouragement throughout these institutions and elsewhere of the knowledge of the English language.

6. To bring students, whether undergraduate or post-graduate, from countries over-seas to undertake courses of education, study, or industrial training in the United Kingdom.

7. To spread among the widest public abroad a knowledge of those things which it is the Council's business to make known, through the medium of a Press service, films, the distribution of literature, exhibitions, lectures, concerts, and theatrical performances.(22)

Books and Periodicals

According to the report, the functional work of the Council was becoming a very important part of its activities. The books and periodicals program had been greatly expanded, for no part of the Council's work could go far without books, and one of the Council's main tasks had been to build up general libraries of English books in the British Institutes and Anglophil Societies and in foreign universities and other institutions. Scientific and technical works were also presented to specialist libraries abroad. The Council had founded or added to the libraries of English books in at least five hundred institutions. It was not customary for the Council to give books dealing directly with political propaganda or with the war.

An important new development was a Book Export Scheme to encourage the sale of British books of some cultural value in foreign book shops. The plan was worked out with the cooperation of the Treasury, the Export Credits Guarantee Department of the Board of Trade, the Publishers Association and the National Book Council. British diplomatic missions abroad were asked to submit the names of a certain number of reputable booksellers. To these foreign booksellers a monthly book list comprising a selection of British books published in Great Britain during that month was sent. The foreign bookseller paid the freight, but if he could not sell the books within six months he could hand them over to the local representative of the British Council, who would then acquire them from the publisher and use them as he thought advisable.

In the program of the British Council there was a fairly large-scale distribution of books and newspapers to the Institutes and Anglophil Societies. A large variety of periodicals of a popular, literary, technical, or learned kind were also distributed to other institutions in foreign countries and in the British colonies. British periodicals and periodicals in the languages of the Allied countries were distributed to Allied and national centers in Great Britain. At the end of the year the total number of subscriptions was 35,347.

Britain Today, a small fortnightly publication, the first issue of which appeared in March, 1939, discontinued its French, German, and Italian editions during the year 1940-41 but the circulation of the English, Portuguese, and Spanish editions increased to approximately 68,000.(23)

Broadcasting

As far as broadcasting was concerned, most of the activities carried on before the war by a joint committee on broadcasting, which included representatives of the Council, the B.B.C. and other official bodies, had ceased to be the concern of the Council since the outbreak of war. (24)

Exhibitions---Fine Arts

The Council was responsible for all British fine art exhibitions, either official or semi-official, shown abroad. The Council had acquired a collection of over 250 modern British prints, water-colours, and drawings through the generosity of the late Lord Wakefield.(25)

Films

The greater part of the Council's film program had included:

1. The production of a news-reel, British News, compiled from the best of the material contained in the weekly newsreels made by the five British news-reel companies.

2. The commission of documentary films on carefully chosen subjects dealing with British life and achievements. These were distributed in the public cinemas of over eighty different countries and were seen by a vast number of audiences.

Adding to the library of 84 sound films, ten new films had recently been completed, including:

Architects of England---The past and present of English architecture.
City Bound---London's transport system.
Learning to Live---English children at school.

Other films were still in production. The Council was also planning to produce a number of films of a strictly educational kind, such as Empire Round the Atlantic, a historic-geographic film. Foreign commentaries were added to most new films in Afrikaans, Dutch, French, Portuguese, and Spanish.

3. The acquisition of the foreign rights of suitable documentary films already made commercially in Great Britain.

4. The provision where necessary of commentaries or subtitles in foreign languages.

5. The commission or acquisition of films intended for educational purposes abroad, or describing technical or scientific achievements which it is desired to make known abroad.

6. The distribution of the films made or acquired through the proper trade channels for commercial distribution in cinemas abroad, or through other channels for noncommercial exhibition by educational authorities or local representatives of the British Government.

7. The equipment of Institutes, Anglophil Societies or other suitable institutions with sound-projectors and libraries of films.(26)

Lectures

When the war activities became more intensified, many lecture engagements had to be cancelled. However, in January, 1941, Sir James Purves-Stewart lectured in Lisbon and then in Madrid. A delegation from the University of Oxford, including Dr. J. R. H. Weaver, President of Trinity College, Mr. W. J. Entwistle, Professor of Spanish Studies, and Mr. T. F. Higham, Public Orator, sent to confer the degree of Doctor of Civil Law on the President of Portugal, lectured in Portugal.

Music and the Theatre

In the field of music, the Council's aim was to bring British music past and present to the knowledge of foreign musicians and audiences and to encourage its performance by professional and amateur musicians. When the war made it difficult to continue the visits abroad of British artists, orchestras, or choirs, the Council put increased emphasis on sending scores of British music, song-books, and phonograph records to most of the cultural centers in which it is interested.

While the Council valued highly the presentation by British companies of plays, opera, and ballet, such activities were sharply curtailed by the war.(27)

The Press and Receptions Division

The Press and Receptions Division of the Council maintained a channel of communications between the British press and the press of other countries. It also was of assistance to the foreign journalists, helping them to obtain introductions and information on special subjects. It was responsible for all receptions given by the Council and for the entertainment and information of the editors of newspapers, doctors, educators, and other foreign visitors. It kept in touch with the foreign press associations.

The Council did not supply what is sometimes called "hot news." As the report states, "it is concerned to supply material [based on but not consisting of current news] which deals with the life of Great Britain and British achievement in every field. Such background material is inevitably related to and coloured by the war, but it is recognized abroad as being free from the imputation of political propaganda and is often the more welcome for that reason."

The information service of the Council supplied a daily edition of London Letters which in 1941 was despatched to 127 centers in 78 foreign countries and British colonies. Feature articles were despatched regularly. The Council also had a large library of photographs.(28)

Science, Engineering, and Medicine

The Council had always been interested in making the contributions of British science, engineering, and medicine better known to other peoples. A committee of distinguished scientists had recently been appointed to consider what achievements and activities of British science, medicine, and engineering should be given publicity abroad. A news letter called Monthly Science News was published by the Council.

The Council also provided lantern slides, epidiascopes, radiographs, photographic and other small exhibitions, teaching materials, photographs for school purposes, flags, posters, prizes, maps, and games for use by schools, Anglophil Societies, and Institutes.(29)

THE basis of the carefully planned and comprehensive program described in the above paragraphs, a solid foundation was laid for the future work of the Council.

From 1940 on, recognized as a permanent organization important to the national life of Great Britain, the Council was able to expand rapidly. Its peculiar organization and its quasi-official character made it possible for the Council not only to carry on its regular program, but to adapt itself to the needs of wartime.

The appointment of the fourth Chairman of the British Council, Sir Malcolm Robertson, was announced in June, 1941. The new Chairman had been instrumental in forming the first of the South American cultural societies when he was British Ambassador at Buenos Aires, and had for a long time been interested in the work of the Council.(30)

The British Council, from the beginning, was aware of the great importance of preparing materials on British life and thought for use abroad. Enlisting the services of British experts in many fields, the Council had made increasingly available to the peoples of other countries very diverse materials which might help them in their understanding of the British people. Among these materials was the series of brochures on "British Life and Thought" which included such subjects as: The British Commonwealth by A. Berridale Keith; The British System of Government by W. A. Robson; British Justice by Sir Maurice Amos; British Trade Unions by John Price. Another series, "Science in Britain," included: British Agricultural Research, Rothamsted, by Sir John Russell. Some of these books were handsomely illustrated. Good translations of many of them into Spanish, Portuguese, Swedish, Czech, and other languages facilitated their use.(31)

Much emphasis was also given to the preparation of documentary films, which included such titles as Royal Road, a record of the public activities and home life of their Majesties; Pacific (colour), a diagrammatic film of the development of the Empire round the Pacific Ocean; and Surgery in Chest Disease, a medical film.

IN SPITE of the many demands made in Great Britain by the war, the work of the British Council was strongly supported during this period. Each year showed large increases in the number of students taking the English courses of the Council as well as in the number of Institutes. In general all activities were greatly expanded. In Turkey, for example, the number of pupils studying English rose from 2,899 in December, 1941, to 4,510 in March, 1943. British Institutes were opened in Addis Ababa and in Mexico in 1943. Work was begun with the Soviet Union and close relations with Sweden were re-established.(32)

In a speech in the House of Commons on July 7, 1942, Sir Malcolm Robertson stressed the importance of this work. He said: "We have sent abroad lecturers of eminence on many subjects and we have founded British and Anglophil institutes all over the world-that is to say, in peace time. We have been informed by the Greek and Jugoslav Governments that it was in large measure due to the work of the British Council in their country that they decided that the British point of view was one that was worth something in civilization and the advancement of morality in the world, and they decided to put up the fight that they did so gallantly put up against Italy and Germany. Those were definite statements that were made us by the statesmen of those two countries. We have these institutes in the Middle East, we have them in Central America and South America, in Spain, Portugal and Sweden . . . . The whole point of our work, as I have said, is to make peoples understand each other."(33)

The report on the Council's work for the year ending March 31, 1944, told of the great progress made during the first ten years of the Council's existence. The introduction stressed the importance of furthering the ordinary relations, the non-political, non-economic relations between peoples---the "popular relations" as they were sometimes called.(34)

The Council had played its part in the war effort, stated the report, but that part might be nearing a conclusion and it must begin to "prepare a greater part in the no less difficult peace effort," for it was more naturally an instrument of peace.(35)

In reviewing the developing policies of the Council and in planning for the post-war program, the point was strongly emphasized that cultural relations should not be competitive but reciprocal. The report made clear the Council's opinion that "no Government should look with equanimity on the prospect after the war of international competition in the cultural field." The statement concluded: "Those in charge of cultural relations should bring messages of peace and good sense and that of each country should be complementary to the others. . .(36)

Among the many significant developments in the Council's work during the first ten years were: the start of an effective program in China; the increasing attention given to music; the developing interest in medical work which was becoming an important part of the programs of the overseas establishments; and the services rendered to the Allied Armed Forces in Great Britain.

EVEN before the outbreak of the war there were many foreign nationals, largely German refugees, who had taken refuge in the United Kingdom. Later Polish, Norwegian, Dutch, and French nationals came in great numbers and added a large contingent of civilians and members of the armed forces to the foreign population of Great Britain. The British Council was entrusted with the general and educational welfare of these foreign residents---refugees from Nazi oppression and men, women, and children from enemy-occupied lands.

The means used by the Council included the teaching of English, the distribution of books and periodicals, film shows, lectures, and concerts. One of the increasing problems was that of the continued education of students and children. The Council worked not only with civilians but with the men of the armed forces.

The Council cooperated with the different national groups in the development of the many national and other centers like the Belgian Institute in London and the Scottish French House in Edinburgh. Working with the Allied Governments in exile, it began to train men and women for the post-war reconstruction work that they would carry on when they returned to their own countries.

It was the British Council that, in 1942, after consultation with the Foreign Office, proposed to the Secretary of the Board of Education the establishment of the Conference of Allied Ministers of Education which carried on an active program in preparation for educational reconstruction in post-war Europe.

In March, 1944, the United States Government announced that it was prepared to cooperate with the Conference and sent an American delegation headed by the Hon. J. William Fulbright to London. During the meetings a preliminary constitution for a United Nations Educational and Cultural Organization was prepared.

In cooperation with the Admiralty, the War Office, and the Air Ministry, the Council made its services increasingly available to the armed forces of the Allies and to the Allied and neutral merchant seamen arriving in British ports.(37)

THE question of the relationship of the British cultural program abroad to the British program of economic expansion in other countries was raised more or less directly many times during the first ten years of the Council's existence. The French authorities always believed that better cultural relations with other countries led to better economic relations. A similar point of view held by the British is clearly expressed in an article on the British Council entitled "British Council Survey and Annual Review" published in the War Time Trading Bulletin in 1944. The British Council, stated the article, "is an organization whose world wide activities are promoting goodwill for Britain and paving the way for British overseas trade in the post-war era."

The following paragraph on the British Council and overseas trade also appeared in this survey.

The British Council is often asked to act for foreign countries as an intermediary in finding and selecting Technical Advisers, Professors and Lecturers in such subjects as Naval Construction, Metallurgy, and Industrial Chemistry, as well as more academic subjects such as Physics, Mathematics, Astronomy, Gynaecology, Geology, and Organic Chemistry from which the effect on trade relations might be regarded as less direct. It has been found again and again that where foreign technicians or business executives have received their training from a British staff, they are far more likely to turn towards British firms for tools and materials.(38)

A summary of the Council's overseas activities was given in the annual report for 1944-45. There were 31 representatives of the Council with offices in foreign countries and in British colonies and 99 British Institutes and similar centers in operation by March, 1945. Plans were being made to reestablish the Institutes in Greece, Yugoslavia and Italy. The total number of students and members of the British Institutes had increased to 24,700, while the total number of students and members in the Cultural Societies in Latin America had risen to 33,344. The Council was teaching English to more than 10,000 students in Turkey alone. A hundred and sixty-one students, most of them post-graduates, had been brought to Great Britain with British Council scholarships. During the period between March, 1941 and March, 1945, 37 British professors and lecturers had been appointed to foreign universities and centers of higher education through the Council's agency. Eight schools were controlled and nearly one hundred were financially assisted by the Council in the Mediterranean area.

Of significance to the development of post-war policy was the statement of the Council that, in furthering cultural relations, or popular relations as they were sometimes called, among all peoples, the emphasis should be on common interests rather than on the difference between one national way of life and others. In this connection the report stated:

To such an extent are these popular relations grounded upon community of interest that a great part of the Council's work or that of any other cultural relations organisation, lies in providing information which is of direct, immediate, practical interest to those who ask for it; information about British developments and discoveries for doctors and scientists, instruction in the English language for teachers of English, the opportunity for young professional men and research workers to carry on their studies in Britain; information on their common workaday problems for people in all walks of life. This work, conducted as one side of an exchange, rather than the international projection (as it is called) of Britain and the British way of life is the core of popular relations, as it is the core of amicable relationship between individuals.(39)

AS THE war in Europe drew to a close the House of Commons became more and more concerned with the place in the post-war world of the four agencies which had been dealing with overseas publicity, the Press Attachés at the British Embassies, the British Council, the Ministry of Information and the Overseas Services of the B.B.C. There was a long debate in the House on May 18, 1945, on the future of these four closely related services. Many questions were raised as to the work of a committee which had been set up to study the "work of the British Council, its organization, what the future of its activities should be, how its purpose could best be fulfilled, and what its relation to the central Government should be." Much apprehension was expressed that there might be some curtailment of the work of the Council and all members who spoke urged that the work, instead of being curtailed, should be considerably expanded.(40)

The Under Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, Mr. George Hall, said that the inquiry into the Council's activities was no reflection on its work and that the Council "need have no apprehension that it ought not to continue its work with full energy." There was no desire to interfere in any way with the work of the Council, but the tremendous expansion of this work and the increase in grants from £5,500 in 1935 to £3,500,000 in 1944-45 as well as the importance of the work called for such an inquiry. "The Council now operates in no fewer than 38 countries," continued Mr. Hall, "in nine of which the activities are well developed and semi-developed in eight, while the Council have some activities in another 21 countries. This does not include the liberated countries in Europe, where activities have already been commenced. In addition, the Council has had increased activities in this country due to the war, but these are likely to decrease with the departure of the Allied troops. One of my hon. Friends made the point that this work should be followed up. We are hoping it will be possible that some activity of the British Council will be established in countries from which, in the main, Allied troops were drawn, and I have no doubt that the suggestion made by my hon. Friend will be borne in mind." Although a much larger sum had been requested, the grants to the Council for 1945-46 had been reduced to £2,800,000 from more than £3,500,000 for 1944-45. The grant for 1944-45 had been underspent, said Mr. Hall, and there was a considerable amount of leeway to make up. If additional expenditure was required as a result of the inquiry, a supplementary estimate would be considered. He concluded, "The work that is being done is long-term work, but is very, very important and it is not the intention of those who are considering the recommendations of the Findlater Stewart Report at the present time to do anything to damp down the work which has been so well done."(41)

After the end of hostilities, the Government continued to give serious consideration to the kinds of information services which should be maintained, both within Great Britain and overseas in peacetime. The Prime Minister, Mr. Attlee, told the House of Commons on December 17, 1945, that, while these services should be financially reduced, they had "an important and permanent part in the machinery of Government under modern conditions." He continued:

It is essential to good administration under a democratic system that the public shall be adequately informed about the many matters in which Government action directly impinges on their daily lives, and it is in particular important that a true and adequate picture of British policy, British institutions and the British way of life should be presented overseas.

In the view of the Government, the responsibility of a Department must rest with its Minister, but there are various technical functions, notably on the production side, which it would be uneconomical to organize departmentally, and which can best be performed centrally as a common service. For this purpose we propose that departmental information services shall be supplemented by a central office performing certain common technical and production functions and making specialist services available to Departments for both home and overseas purposes. To be effective, this office, like the Government information services generally, will need a highly qualified rather than a large staff.(42)

The general organization of the information services was announced by the Prime Minister on December 17, 1945. The Ministry of Information was to come to an end on March 31, 1946. After that time ministers would be responsible to Parliament for the information policy just as for other activities of their departments. The Foreign Office would take over the overseas services which had been under the Ministry of Information.(43) A Central Office of Information was to be established for the production and procurement of materials for all ministries.

In the meantime, some concern was felt about the future of the British Council. Sir Malcolm Robertson had tendered his resignation on the ground that, with the greatly increased work of the Council, it was impractical for him to combine parliamentary duties with those of the chairmanship, and for some months the Council had no chairman.

Lord Tweedsmuir, commenting on the British Council in the House of Lords on February 27, 1946, said: "Its idea is excellent and its achievements undoubted." He added, however, "It has suffered over a long period under the unprofitable status of being officially unofficial; it has been in a state of suspended animation awaiting the Government's decision."(44)

The report of the Council for 1945-46, however, indicates that it not only continued many of its activities abroad during this difficult period, but extended them to the liberated countries of Europe which, after years of Nazi domination, were eager to renew contact with the outside world .(45) In fact, the Council had "the honour and the advantage of following almost everywhere in the footsteps" of the British fighting man, stated a leading article in The Times of London, and continued: "gratitude for his victory revived or created all over the continent intense interest in the way of life which inspired him and the institutions which had stood the test of total war." (46)

As soon as it was feasible, British Council representatives began to establish programs in one liberated country after another. In spite of the paper shortage, large numbers of books and periodicals were sent abroad to meet the tremendous demand for information about Great Britain which came from official bodies such as government departments, and from educational institutions, research organizations, and individuals. During the year, in accordance with a change of policy, an increasing proportion of the Council's funds were devoted to the building up of British Council libraries which would be a permanent asset to the Council, although some presentations to universities, research institutes, Anglophil Societies, and schools were continued.(47)

The report noted the decision, made early in 1946, to withdraw the Book Export Scheme, through which as a war measure, special credit terms and sale on return facilities had been extended to book sellers abroad, and to return the trade to normal channels as soon as possible.

The Council's book coypyright work increased during this period, and the book review scheme was extended. Forty-one brochures in twelve languages were published.

A stream of visitors began to pour into the United Kingdom, most of whom came from Europe or from the Near East. The British Council's report for this period lists the names of more than 260 persons, many of whom were the Council's guests. Among the important delegations were the French Medical Delegation of ten members, headed by Professor Bandourin, Dean of the Paris Faculty of Medicine, who came to Great Britain as guests of the Council and the Royal College of Physicians; and a delegation of twenty-eight Belgian professors, representing different professions, who were all members of the Fondation Universitaire. Other groups included Belgian sister-tutors, Norwegian doctors, and Dutch women doctors. A number of teachers and educators visited Great Britain to study recent educational developments. Among the visitors interested in agriculture were two parties of French agriculturalists, the Director of the National Agricultural Research Bureau of China, the Dean of the Faculty of Agriculture of Nanking University and a professor of Agricultural Entomology of the University of Rio de Janeiro.(48)

The student program was greatly extended. Four hundred and five new graduate scholarships were offered and 307 were finally awarded by the Council for the year 1945-46. With 148 extensions from 1944-45, a total of 455 Council scholarships was reached. The Council also handled the cases of some 400 private students. Although seriously overcrowded, the British universities continued to open their doors to these students from other lands. A Student's Welfare Section to deal with the social welfare of students was organized in the Home Division of the Council.(49)

As the Allied Forces left Great Britain, the leave courses were diminished, but a number of specialized courses were established to meet the needs of the foreign students and other foreign visitors. Typical of these courses were a vacation course in electrical engineering at Queen Mary College, London, and a course given at the University of St. Andrews on "Britain, its System of Government, of Education and Life, and its Ideals of Empire."

An interchange of visits between the Old Vic Company and the Comédie Française proved to be a most successful venture.

The lecture program, which had been seriously curtailed during the war, was again given an important place among the Council's overseas activities. During the year more than sixty lecturers were sent abroad to speak on a variety of subjects. Vernon Bartlett, M. P., lectured in Denmark and France on "The British Parliament at War," and on "The New Britain," for example, while Bertram Abrahart, Secretary of the Workers Educational Association', Northern District, visited Sweden to speak on "Social Services" and Sir Lawrence Bragg, Head of Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge, lectured on "X-Ray Analysis" in France and Portugal.(50)

The Council tried to meet the constantly increasing demand for English courses and for the training of teachers of English in foreign lands.

The same report described the opening of a British Institute of Higher Studies in Greece. In Hungary, where, in 1945, English was given an equal standing with French, German, and Russian in the secondary schools, the Council was able to provide a number of professors and lecturers to assist in the training of teachers of English. In the Scandinavian countries and in Belgium, in response to the needs expressed by the ministers of education of the countries concerned, an increasing number of British Council summer schools was established, which gave courses in the English language and literature. Some twenty experienced lecturers from British universities and adult education organizations were sent by the Council to teach the courses.

The following statement from the Monthly Review of the British Council of July 1, 1946 shows the kinds of activities furthered in Poland during the early post-war period:

The Bureau of Scientific Information inaugurated by the Council is becoming one of our busiest and most important activities. Polish scientific works recently sent to England, nearly all of which contained comprehensive English summaries, totalled 366. 61 requests for English scientific books, and 79 for scientific periodicals have been received from Poland.

The Science Officer went to Krakow where he visited all scientific institutions and most of the Universities' important scientists. Requests for the Council's assistance were on a gigantic scale and have necessitated the establishment of a careful priorities list.

The Council's proposal to use its lecturers in Poland to conduct countrywide courses for Polish teachers of English has been accepted with gratitude by the Ministry of Education.

The Council has been requested by the Ministry to send a set of its publications to all schools in Poland where English is taught.

A presentation was made by the Rector and Librarian of Warsaw University to the Acting Representative of a very fine specimen of a 16th Century Bible in English. A set of Polish text books was presented by the Polish Ministry of Education to the Council's Warsaw office.

44 British Council fellows were received from London. Ten of them were shown by the Ministry of Health to medical audiences in Warsaw, and then sent by the Ministry to the provinces.

British music supplied by the Council was performed by Radio Polski on 14th March and 17th, 21st and 22nd April.(51)

During the year a number of films were completed, including "This is Britain," (nos. 1, 2, and 3), "Routine Job" (Scotland Yard), "General Election," "Education for the Deaf," and "Signs and Stages of Anaesthesia." On the whole, a marked improvement in the distribution of films was noted.(52)

An exhibition of painting by the French artists, Picasso and Matisse, arranged in cooperation with the French Direction des Relations Culturelles was seen by 381,500 people while it was being shown in London, Glasgow and Manchester. Among the exhibitions sent abroad was an exhibition of 120 paintings from the Tate Gallery which was shown in a number of European countries.

In Latin America, according to the report, the Council "had a year of steady and successful progress." Among the activities noted were the opening of the Argentine-British Medical Center in Buenos Aires, the successful experiment made with classes designed especially for professional and technical workers in Uruguay, and the English lessons given by wireless in Chile.(53)

Within the United Kingdom a large program was continued. A scheme was developed through which members of the occupying forces in Europe were detached for periods of three weeks at a time during which they worked with their "opposite numbers" in the British trades and industries, as well as in the professions. The activities in the national and Allied centers in Great Britain were also furthered.

FINALLY an announcement of plans for the Council was made on June 6, 1946, by the Under Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs. The work of the Council had been carefully reviewed in relation to the work and organization of the Government's overseas program, he said, and continued:

It has been decided that the Council shall continue to work under its Charter for another five years, after which the position shall again be reviewed. General Sir Ronald Adam has been appointed Chairman of the Council. In order to avoid overlapping between the British Council and the Government's overseas information services, it has been laid down that in the future the Council's scope will be restricted to educational and cultural work. Provision is consequently being made for close consultation between the Council and the Overseas Departments responsible for information work, and there will in general be a closer scrutiny by the Government of the Council's projected activities. The Council will, like the information services, draw on the Central Office of Information for the production and procurement of its material. The British Council will continue to be financed by a grant in aid paid by the Foreign Office, and the Colonial Office will continue to repay the Council for the expenses of its work in and for the territories for which the British Council is responsible.(54)

Commenting on the Government's decision, the report of the Council for 1945-46 stated: "This naturally affects the Council's work, but to a far smaller extent than might be supposed, for the greater part of its work is already educational and cultural, and this restriction permits of concentration upon what are, in fact, the essentials."(55)

With the renewal of its Charter for another five years, the British Council could now plan ahead. Sir Ronald Adam, taking over his duties as Chairman, in a message to the staff, stated that the Council would continue as an independent body for at least five years and that these years would be the most important in the Council's history. He added that he felt convinced that after five years it would be found necessary to continue the Council's work.(56)

The Foreign Office soon began to clarify the functions of the overseas information services under the new organization, and to outline their relationships not only to the Foreign Office as a whole, but also to the British Council and to the Central Office of Information. A Cultural Relations Department within the Foreign Office was to concern itself with the British Council policy and expenditure, the liaison between the British Council and the Foreign Office and relations with UNESCO as well as all other questions of educational and cultural interest.

The lines of demarcation between the work of the Council and that of the British Information Services were soon more clearly defined by the authorities. As the chief agent of the British Government for the conduct of cultural relations with other countries, the Council's task, in the wider sense, was to be that of furthering "long-term education in the English language, British arts and sciences, and British institutions." The Council was given full responsibility for the strictly cultural subjects which include the English language, British drama, fine arts, literature, and music. For these cultural subjects the Council might use all media of publicity and education and could choose its own methods. In dealing with the more general subjects concerned with other aspects of British life and thought, however, when there might be overlapping with the work of the Information Services, the Council was to take an educational approach with both individuals and groups, either through a long-term educational program or through shorter but intensive educational activities. In other words, the Council's work in these general subjects was education, not publicity.

On the other hand, to the British Information Services was given the full responsibility for explaining strictly political subjects, namely, the current policies and actions of the British Government as well as those of other Governments. Since the aim of the British Overseas Information was to ensure the presentation in other countries of "a true and adequate picture of British policy, British institutions, and the British way of life," the Information Services would also deal with the general subjects but the emphasis was to be on publicity and information services rather than on long-term educational methods.

The Council, then, was to continue its work with schools, University students, teachers, youth groups and educational organizations which had an interest in the English language and in British life. It was to develop British Council Centers abroad where these educational groups might meet. It was also to have close contact with learned and professional societies and occupational groups and to undertake to educate members of these "specialist groups" in British methods and achievements in their special subjects: In carrying out its educational and cultural program, the Council might continue to make use of the various media, including books and periodicals, exhibitions, photographs, posters, film strips, publications, films, and press articles, for which the materials in general were to be procured through the Central Office of Information, although they might be produced specifically for the Council. The Council's program also included broadcasting, the appointment of British teachers and advisers to foreign Governments, institutions, or other bodies, assistance to schools abroad, a widespread lecture program, the training of students either in Great Britain or elsewhere and the bringing of foreigners to Great Britain. The teaching of English was to be emphasized throughout the program. The work with resident foreigners in the United Kingdom was continued.

A survey of the British Council's activities as reported during the first eight months of the fiscal year 1946-47 showed that a very active program was being furthered.

While there was strong emphasis on the development of cultural activities in the countries of Europe and the Near East, the work in the Latin American Republics and in China was not neglected. Since there was no British Council program in the United States, the British Information Services continued to function and supplied many important informational and cultural services to the American public. These services, according to an official statement, were established in May, 1942, as an agency of the British Government, "in response to widespread demands in the United States for a source of authoritative information about all things British." The statement continued:

The older British Library of Information, founded in 1920, and the British Press Service, 1940, were absorbed into the new organization.

British Information Services consists of four Divisions: The Reference Division with a large library and extensive reference files; the Press and Radio Division to deal with those two great media of public information; the Film Division to arrange for the exhibition of films produced under British official auspices; and the General Division which arranges programs for British speakers, plans exhibitions, and publishes pamphlets and other printed material illustrating various phases of British life.(57)

In June, 1946, the British Government took an important step in approving the extension of the full range of the Council's activities to the area within the jurisdiction of the Dominions Office. By agreement with the Secretary of State for Dominion Affairs, the British Council was to establish its own offices in Canada, Australia, and New Zealand during the current year.(58)

As the post-war programs developed, the use of the newer media of communication, the radio and the cinema, was emphasized in both informational and cultural programs.

With the improvement of travel conditions, an increasingly important place was given to the interchange of persons, which activity had been seriously curtailed during the war. In addition to the regular British Council scholarships offered for study in Great Britain, a series of short vacation courses for both young people and adults was developed which brought numerous foreign visitors to the United Kingdom. At Dulwich, for example, in August, 1946, an International Teachers Course for selected teachers from overseas was arranged by the Ministry of Education and the British Council working together. Seven Belgians, six Czechs, seven Dutch, seven French, four Greeks, two Luxembourgers, five Norwegians, ten Poles, and three Swiss arrived from overseas at the invitation of the British Council to join the forty British teachers invited to attend the course. Also typical of the vacation courses given during the same summer was a short non-specialist agricultural course held at the Monmouthshire Institute of Agriculture, which was attended by Indian, Egyptian, and Canadian students.(59) As guests of the British Council, there also arrived in the United Kingdom each month an increasing number of distinguished visitors including experts in scientific fields, architects, librarians, physicians, university professors, directors, artists, and musicians. For example, the Council's Review of October 1 listed among other recent guests of the Council, Professor Brunner, Rector of Innsbruck University; Professor Precechtal, ear, nose, and throat specialist from Czechoslovakia; Baron Hoyningen Huene, publisher from Finland; Dr. Zeki Akkoyunlu, musician from Turkey; Señor Casal Rocco, architect, from Uruguay.(60)

On the other hand, the Council began to re-emphasize the sending of distinguished British professors and specialists to lecture, to attend meetings, to act as consultants, and to perform other services abroad with a view to making British life and thought known and understood by the peoples of other lands.

The Review of October 1, for example, noted that Sir Howard Florey, F.R.S., had been in Bogotá, Colombia where his three lectures had been "enthusiastically received by approximately 1500 people---doctors, medical students, and the general public." Mr. Wright, documentary film producer and film critic was to leave for a lecture tour for the Council in Greece and Egypt. Mr. McColvin, Chief Librarian of the City of Westminster, was to leave early in October for a visit to the Middle East, Australia, and the USA. Sir Reginal Coupland, Beit Professor of Colonial History at the University of Oxford, had gone to lecture in Copenhagen and Aarhus. Sir Erich Maclagen was lecturing in Poland and Czechoslovakia on such subjects as "British Mediaeval Sculpture," and "Modern English Sculpture." Among the appointments to foreign universities of British professors was that of a professor of English to the University of Padua, Italy, a post which is subsidized by the British Council.(61)

In cooperation with the education authorities of the countries concerned, a number of summer schools for the teaching of English were established abroad by the Council. Professors from Great Britain were often sent out to teach these courses. One of these schools in Norway was described in the Monthly Review of the British Council of November 1, 1946. The following statements were included in the description:

On an arm of the Nordfjord, some twenty-four hours by steamer beyond Bergen, well north of the Shetlands, on latitude equal with the Faeroes, lies Sandane. . .

To the wooden building of the Firda Gymnas at Sandane, a secondary school of considerable reputation, early in July came sixty Norwegian teachers, mostly from elementary schools or the training colleges preparing for them. They were accompanied by representatives of the men's and women's teachers associations, to act as host and hostess: Miss Hanssen and Mr. Sommersett, two persons outstanding for competence and sheer character. The party was completed by the five Englishmen who had come out specially to provide the intensive course which was the object of the operation. All these threads had been drawn together, not without overcoming difficulties, by the Council's Representative in Norway, with the full backing of the Norwegian Ministry of Education, which wishes to extend and strengthen the teaching of English to Norwegians at every level. The "students" were enrolled by the teachers' organizations, which had succeeded in assembling a varied representation from Tromsö and Kristiansand ---1,000 miles apart---and many different places in between. It took some of them nearly a week to get there by the quickest route. At least one cycled, and was ten days on the way.

I know that my colleagues would agree in saying that the Norwegians impressed us just as much as we seem to have impressed them. 'Spiritual mal-nutrition' was exactly what they did not show; their spirit was tremendous, and the intensity of their feeling for Norwegian songs and landscape, and the dignity of their own place in the world's civilization, combined with their frankness and sense of fun, are what we shall not forget.(62)

Comparable courses for teachers of English were organized in a number of other countries, including Czechoslovakia, Poland, and Belgium.

The Monthly Reviews of the British Council note many other activities during the summer and autumn of 1946. The Old Vic Company visited New York and "played to packed houses and enthusiastic audiences." These performances were given under the joint auspices of Theatre Incorporated (American) and the Governors of the Old Vic and the British Council. The British Council also assisted two British conductors to fulfill engagements during August. John Barbirolli conducted a concert at the Salzburg Festival and Sir Malcolm Sargent conducted at the Lucerne Festival. It was reported that many requests for "music on hire" had been received and during the same months over forty major works left London for performances abroad. A new library of sheet music was sent to Bulgaria. New and reprinted scores were added to the music libraries at Buenos Aires, Quito, Cairo, Athens, Budapest, Rome, Malta, The Hague, Accra, and Belgrade.

An exhibition of Modern British Painting organized by the Tate Gallery under the auspices of the British Council, was shown in both Austria and Czechoslovakia during the autumn months. In Stockholm, an exhibition of British scientific instruments was opened by Sir Charles Darwin, who was the guest of the Swedish Government. Another exhibition, "Replanning Britain" also aroused much interest in Sweden. The Periodicals Department was especially active during this period. "To the Europe as anxious to know what has been happening behind the curtain of isolation as it is for bread or medicines, the Council has been able by its distribution of periodicals, to bring immediate and effective relief," stated the Monthly Review for October 1:

The task of the Periodicals Department in bridging the seven years gap is threefold: to reach the individual---whether he be the ordinary reader who wants to know how other ordinary readers in Great Britain are living, the artist who must make contact with other artists, or the physician needing information on his own special subject---by sending a wide selection of periodicals to the Council reading-room or library and to Council-supported Anglophil societies; to provide state, university, and special libraries with current issues of the specialist periodicals to which they subscribed before the war but are now unable to buy owing to currency difficulties; and to help British and European learned societies and institutions to reestablish their prewar contacts and exchanges of publications.(63)

A number of brochures were published including, in the British Life and Thought Series, British Universities, by Sir Ernest Barker, British Libraries, by L. R. McColvin, and English Literature (Hungarian) by B. Ifor Evans. The printing figures for the September issue of Britain Today were:

For its work for the year 1946-47 the Council was again given a grant of £3,500,000.

On November 22, 1946, The Times of London, reviewing the report of the British Council for 1945-46, stated:

The enthusiasm for Britain felt in the liberated countries in 1944 has naturally suffered checks and dilution since, and debts of gratitude are not everywhere the assets they once were. Now prestige and good relations must be based on practical policies, on personal contacts in the family and specialist spheres, on exchanges of facts, and facilities for study and travel. It is sound and practical that in present day Yugoslavia the British Council should concentrate on the teaching of English and the spread of scientific and medical information, not only through books and films, but also through the training in London of Yugoslavs as orthopaedic mechanics. In Poland, when English is taught in thousands of schools, the first task has been to improve the English of hundreds of teachers who have heard and read no English for seven years.(64)

With the renewal of its Charter for another five years the British Council could now plan ahead. "The basis for future advances have been laid in most countries," concluded the article, "and improvement in international communications and currency conditions should facilitate its principal task to promote the free movement of persons and ideas to and from Britain."

The Economist, discussing the same report, in an article entitled, "British Council, expressed its concern over several obstacles which must be surmounted by the Council in the development of its program. Activities had been overexpanded in certain countries like Spain, and one of the problems of the Council was to find a way to correct the unbalance between countries. It was important to improve the insecurity of tenure which made it difficult to secure the best men and women for its purposes. The problem of producing materials suitable to regional needs instead of goods that purported to be suitable for world-wide distribution must be faced. The Economist also discussed the overlapping between work of the Information Services and the work of the Council, especially in "the vast no-mans-land of subjects that are neither wholly political nor wholly cultural," in which "the Council tackles the expert and the Information Service the plebs."(65)

It was good to learn that there was recognition of overseas publicity as a necessary government activity, whether through a chartered body, such as the Council or another agency, the article stated and added:

The Council has a heavy year ahead. It has to conduct its business against the odds described, and on means that are unlikely to be commensurate with the additional work of feeding a starved Europe with intellectual food.

A grant-in-aid of at least £5,000,000 for next year should be well spent particularly if arrangements were made for dovetailing the work of the British Council more economically with the Foreign Office service. By all reports, the Council has in Sir Ronald Adam a thoughtful, inventive and inspiring chief at its head, and is already feeling the advantage of a strong helmsman. Everyone with experience of "abroad" knows that the Council is capable of bringing in results---political, social and commercial---that are commensurate with the outlay involved.(66)