"JAPAN has been inclined, historically speaking, to absorb the culture of other countries rather than to propagate her own, with the result that she has remained for a long time past little known to the outside world," asserted Matsuzo Nagai, chairman of the board of the cultural society Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai, in 1939.(1) "Lately, however, our classics as well as our modern sciences have begun gradually to be introduced abroad and in that way the understanding of our country by others is making satisfactory progress. . . Friendship between nations can best be cultivated when there exists a true understanding by one nation of the culture of another. The importance, therefore, can hardly be exaggerated that the attention of the world be directed to international exchange in academic and cultural fields."

Such a program as Nagai indicated was new for Japan on any considerable scale, but its roots are farther back in the past than we are likely to think. The first description of Japan by a European was a sixteenth-century account by Fernão Mendes Pinto, a Portuguese, whose description still "stands today as one of the great documents of cultural contact with the Orient."(2) The Portuguese and Spanish caravels of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries that trafficked with the Moluccas, China, and Japan sometimes brought back passengers as well as freight. An embassy from "Mazamuna, King of Voxú [Japan] "---according to the Spanish Archives---in 1614 brought to the city of Seville in Spain a sword and dagger "of great artistic merit" and a letter in which the King desired the friendship of the city, saying that he had heard how in Seville "many ships from all over the world [met] and accordingly there are many pilots and other persons expert in navigation. May Your Worship summon them and find out from them if it is possible to navigate directly from Japan to this city, by what route or in what port or ports would one go. Please send us a full explanation so that if it be possible, our vessels may sail this route every year and our wish be fulfilled, and our friendship be very strong and communicable."(3)

"Communicability," in any great degree, however---in spite of the eager interest of one seventeenth-century Japanese ruler---entered late, and then as a matter of expediency, into Japan's cultural relations with the outside world. One of the first European countries to establish a reciprocal cultural relationship with Japan was France. In our own day, of the several Japanese-French organizations of such interchange existing at the beginning of the Pacific War, La Société Franco-Japonaise had been founded in Tokyo in 1886 and was financed by the French Government. This organization fostered the Tokyo Law School and the Japanese-French Law School which in 1903 had changed its name to Hosei University; and through the years encouraged and provided facilities for teaching French in Japan.(4) La Société Franco-Japonaise des Sciences pures et appliquées, established in 1933 at Tokyo, has sponsored interchange in translation and distribution of French and Japanese scientific works and has been responsible for selection of the "Committee of the Japanese Section of the Diffusion Committee of Scientific Books of France and Japan." Until 1939 it reported semiannual meetings of French and Japanese scientists.(5)

The Japanese-German Medical Association---Japanisch-Deutsche Medizinische Gesellschaft---established in 1936 to strengthen "relations and friendship between Japanese and German medical men," in its first three years sponsored "speeches of three German guest-professors, performances of medical movies, special invitation of a world-famous German professor," and published in German and Japanese pamphlets on the Foundation Harada's Errinerungen in German, and Japanese-German Medicine, Volumes I and II; and issued a periodical, Medizinische Themats.(6) Das Deutsche Forschungsinstitut, at Kyoto, was organized in 1933 with an endowment fund of 100,000 yen.(7) The Japan-Germany Society in Osaka was one of several dissolved in 1943 "in line with a decision of the headquarters at Tokyo" to discontinue regional societies and operate from the capital. A Domei despatch observed that "the Osaka Japan-Germany Society has been actively promoting Japanese-German friendship for twenty-three years---since the end of the last World War. The Society was established December 18, 1920, with former German Ambassador to Tokyo Solf personally launching the organization. The Society has been particularly successful in its work of promoting interchange of cultures of the two nations. At present the Osaka Japan-Germany Society has a membership of 612, including 518 Japanese, 94 Germans."(8)

Meanwhile, progress of the Japanese-German Institute at Berlin under war conditions was reported by Radio Tokyo: "the study of things Japanese is becoming more active all the time, drawing much closer the cultural ties uniting the two nations. According to a statement by the Japanese-German Institute at Berlin, the activities of that Institute are increasing from day to day."(9)

A Nippon-German cultural agreement for reciprocal translation of publications was concluded at Berlin, July 10, 1943. According to Domei it was "to be executed under supervision of the Dai Nippon Copyright Protection League, while the German Translations Rights will handle the work in Germany." A spokesman of the Japanese Home Ministry was quoted as saying that the agreement would "accelerate the translation of German-Nippon publications in the contracting countries, and facilitate cultural interchange between them. He said that previously the translation in principle was registered by approval of the owners of copyrights, but by virtue of the provisions in the present agreement, the respective clearance agencies will handle such details. Similarly, no individual negotiations for the stipulation of translation fees henceforth will be necessary, since such fees will be standardized . . . . Like procedure will be taken in Germany."(10)

The Niti-Doku-I Sinzen Kyokai, an association for promoting friendly relations among Germany, Italy, and Japan was established in 1937, two years later had a membership of 15,000, proceeded "through the good offices of the Department of Foreign Affairs and the Embassies," and published the Reports of the Peoples' Envoys Returned from Germany and Italy. In November, 1937, it held "a celebration of the Anti-Communism Pact by students . . . representing 13 universities" and a "Nippon-Germany-Italy Comity Night, sponsored by the Department of Foreign Affairs and the City of Tokyo, with 18 universities participating."(11)

Deutsche Gesellschaft für Natur und Völkerkunde Ostasiens, the Germany Eastern-Asia Society with headquarters at Tokyo, was organized in 1873, "to study the countries and the peoples of East Asia and to promote in the world the knowledge of things East Asiatic" and with "the second object . . . to promote scientific, cultural and social relations between Germany and East Asiatic nations, especially Japan." (12) Der Japonisch-Deutsche Verein was established in 1910, also at Tokyo, "to promote friendly relations between the people of Germany and Japan" and "to study sciences and other matters in relation to Germany and Japan";(13) and Das Japonisch-Deutsche Kulturinstitut, a cultural institute dating from 1927, encouraged interchange of German and Japanese art, books, scientific research, and students.(14)

Of the several Italian-Japanese cultural organizations, the most active was apparently the most recently founded, the Nippon-Italy Society (Instituto Italo-Giapponese) established at Tokyo in 1927, which in 1939 "sent Dr. Misio Isimoto to Italy as an exchange professor and Mr. Yosiro Masui to Naples as a teacher of Japanese languages." (15)

In 1939 the number of cultural societies or cultural institutes in Japan---from the Japan-British Society founded in 1909 to the Afghanistan Club established in 1935---included groups more or less official in nature, with memberships of variable numbers and enthusiasm, but ranging, at least on paper, through groups bearing such names as Japan-America, Nippon-Brazil, Japan-Turkish, Nippon-Magyar, Nippon-Roumanian, Nippon-Portugal, Nippon-Soviet, Japan-Czechoslovakia, Nippon-Poland, Japan-Finland, Mexico-Japan, Australia-Japan, Nippon-Argentine, Japanese-Canada, Japan-Denmark, Japan-Sweden, Japan-Norway, Nippon-Spain, Nippon-Belgium, and so to a group that was apparently subsidized by Japan itself: the Philippine Society of Japan, the Siam Society, and the like.(16) Establishment of many such cultural organizations continued during the war, both in Japan and in Japanese-dominated areas. In the summer of 1943, Masayuki Yokoyama, Japanese Minister to French Indo-China and the first Director of the Japan-French Indo-China Cultural Institute, delivered an address on the exchange of culture between Japan and French Indo-China. The new cultural institute, he said, "by initiating cultural undertakings more positively hereafter, will make the French Indochinese and the Annamese understand the true Japanese culture, affording them the facilities of Japanese research associations in the fields of history, economy, and culture. Consequently, utmost efforts will be devoted to interchange of culture between Japan and French Indo-China . . . the exchange of students, the organization of national facilities, and the holding of lecture meetings, short training courses and motion picture showings." (17)

The following year, in the conquered city of Peiping, the inaugural meeting of the "Cultural Federation of the Republic of China"---described by Radio Tokyo as "comprising eight powerful cultural parties in Central China---"adopted "a firm resolution for the creation and exaltation of racial and characteristic cultures."(18) Another resolution declared the new association's purpose "to assemble and concentrate the total power of all the cultural societies so that knowledge of China's original culture may become widely known, as a contribution toward the liberation of the East Asiatic peoples and toward world peace."(19)

A half-century earlier, at Tokyo, the Eastern Uni-Cultural Society (Toa Dobunka) had been organized to promote Japanese and Chinese culture and material friendship. It established at Shanghai a commercial high school for Japanese students, managed the Koken Middle School in Hangkow and the Tyu-niti Institute at Tientsin for Chinese students wishing to learn Japanese and prepare for further study in Japan, and published "The Far Eastern Weekly," Toa Syuho.(20)

The Eastern Asia Economic Research Society, which in 1929 had 2,350 members, was to investigate and study economic conditions in Eastern Asia. Activities included research, bi-monthly lectures, publication of a quarterly journal and of occasional books, public meetings, and brief study courses.(21)

The Japan-China Educational Association (Nikka Gakkai) stated its purposes to be the establishment of schools for preparatory education for students from China and Manchoukuo, and the operation of Toa Gakko School of the East, at Tokyo. Its publications included reports of education of Chinese in Japan and the annual report of the Japan-China Educational Association.(22)

The government-subsidized Great Oriental Cultural Association (Daito Bunka Kyokai) was established in 1923 for "the promotion of cultures unique to Eastern Asia." It purposed through its Research Department "to enhance the Nippon spirit in speeches, publications, lectures, etc., to study the essence of Oriental culture on the basic principle of learning, and to render with all sincerity, service of gratitude to the State; through the Cultural Department, to hold lectures, classes, etc., for the purpose of attaining the object of the Association"; and through the Publication Department "to issue the Society organ Daito Bunka monthly, and many other publications . . . which contribute toward the promotion of Oriental culture and enhancement of the Nippon spirit. Chinese Classical Essays issued semi-annually, in spring and autumn, is a means of making researches public." (23)

The Japanese Department of Foreign Affairs subsidized the Institute of Oriental Culture founded at Kyoto in 1926 to "promote the study and diffusion of Chinese culture and thereby contribute to the advancement of culture in general." (24)

A wartime gesture of cultural rapprochement on a different scholastic level was the decision of the Japanese Ministry of Education in November, 1943, to make "a drastic change" in textbooks for "the national schools and also in those of the middle schools." Innovations included "publication of two middle school grammar books and two Chinese composition books . . . . The middle school Chinese composition book . . . is a new publication that will lead students of Chinese composition to study it as a Japanese classic." (25)

The Imperial Romaji Club of Osaka (Taikoku Romaji Klub), a foundation, advocated writing Japanese in Roman letters and promoted Japanese language classes. It sponsored "summer courses in Roman letters in primary schools in the city of Osaka" and distributed gratis to foreigners on request the monthly publication Romaji Bungakai.(26)

The Japanese Women's Overseas Association, assisted by a subsidy from the Department of Overseas Affairs, was established in 1927 to encourage "overseas emigration of Japanese and promotion of international goodwill." It published the Japanese Women's Overseas Association News. Its main activities (1927-39) are listed as having been:

1. Mediation for marriage for those Japanese emigrating to South America, South Sea Islands, etc., and for those Japanese residing abroad.

2. Provision of facilities to second generations for visiting the motherland on educational tours.

3. Reception of sightseeing parties, envoys, and other visitors from Brazil.

4. Reception of sightseeing parties, envoys and other visitors from Argentina.

5. Reception of delegates of various countries to the International Red Cross Conference.

6. Reception of delegates of different countries to the World Educational Conference.

It listed among its activities also "direction and education of Japanese oversea emigrants, exchanges of cultures with foreign countries," and "sending of women envoys to foreign countries."(27)

The Institute of Art Research, a government institution established in 1930, published regularly a Year Book of Japanese Art and other art studies. In 1938 it began annual publication of Masterpieces of Japanese Art, and in 1932 inaugurated Bijutsu Kenkyu ("The Journal of Art Studies") published monthly with an English summary.(28)

Activities of the Musical Society of Japan, established in 1932 and receiving government subsidy, ranged from investigation of the unification of the musical vocabulary and monthly publication (to June 1936) of Musical Compositions, to a campaign for funds for a monument to Saint-Saëns.(29)

The Association of Great Asia, founded in 1934 to promote friendship, mutual knowledge, and cooperation between Japan and other countries of Asia and to disseminate Japanese culture among them, aimed also at "realization of an Asiatic federation with the whole of Asia as one family."(30)

Its activities were listed as:

1. Encouragement of the Japanese people in obtaining knowledge and understanding of Asia, introducing to them the conditions of the said countries.

2. Presentation and propagation of Japan and Manchoukuo to other Asiatic countries.

3. Investigation on trade and commerce with each of the said countries.

4. Exchange of professors and students and investigation.

5. Management of a school and library and publication work.(31)

The Nippon Cinema Foundation (Dai Nippon Eiga Kyokai) was organized in 1935 "by the united efforts of the Government and the people" to encourage and "refine" motion pictures. It published a magazine, Nippon Eiga; investigated, translated and published motion picture legislation "of some countries" (Germany and France, notably) ; and encouraged production of "culture films."(32)

The International Student Institute (Kokusai Gakuyu Kai) founded in 1935 and reporting 175 student members in 1939, was subsidized by the Cultural Affairs Bureau of the Department of Foreign Affairs.

"International exchange of culture through students of various countries of the world" and "protection and direction of foreign students studying in Japan" were its objectives; and its listed activities included principally student exchange and Japanese-language teaching to foreigners.

In accordance with the Kokusai Gakuyu Kai's extensive program, during the years following its inception, students from every country of the "Co-Prosperity Sphere," the African colonies, India, the Philippines, Brazil, and several Ibero American Republics, as well as many students from the United States who had traveled to Japan on their own funds to pursue cultural studies and the arts, made use of its facilities.

Many students from oriental countries went to Japan to study such technical subjects as engineering, electricity, canning, sericulture, and tobacco propagation. They were required to attend the Kokusai Gakuyu Kai in order to learn Japanese and be "indoctrinated" before entering the technical schools. During indoctrination, visits to cultural exhibits were encouraged and tickets to musical performances and Japanese drama as well as to lectures on all phases of Japanese cultural development were showered upon them.

Travel grants under the guise of government-sponsored tours were arranged also for various groups of professional and non-professional people from many countries; these included garden tours and tours for schoolteachers, as well as student tours in connection with the Japan-America student conferences. Although such tourists either paid their own ocean transportation or had it furnished by the group they represented, upon arrival in Japan they became guests of the Japanese Board of Tourist Industry and Government Railways, and of divers Japanese civic groups interested in promoting Japanese culture, or "the Japanese point of view." Usually the tourists were shown the country's scenic beauties and were introduced to Japanese cultural arts through exhibits, lectures, and often through gifts of handicraft. Other societies, such as the Nippon Bunka Chuo Renmei, specialized in the dissemination of literature and photographic interpretations of oriental culture.

Reporting the central meeting at Tokyo on November 7, 1943 of the Meiji Shrine People's Training Meet, Radio Tokyo announced as a special feature closing the Meet "mass calisthenics of youths from all areas of Greater East Asia." There were at that time 190 foreign students continuing work at Japanese universities during the war. The number included "40 from China, 40 from Manchukuo, 7 from French Indo-China, 24 from Java, 7 from Sumatra, 11 from the Celebes, 10 from Thailand, 26 from the Philippines, 7 from Burma, 10 from Borneo and 8 from Malaya."(33)

The Japan Student Association, with headquarters at International Student House in Tokyo, was organized "to promote international friendship, to introduce Japanese civilization through the English language, and to establish friendly relations among students in Japan."(34) With a membership composed of university and college students studying English, it organized Japan-America student conferences in 1934, 1936, 1938, and 1940, and two Philippine-Japan student conferences. American students organized reciprocally three America-Japan student conferences.

As regards overseas activity, the first Japanese schools in South America were established in the first decade of the present century, primarily for the children of Japanese merchants and farmers in Brazil and Peru. At first these schools, religious and private, apparently did not receive aid from the Japanese Government, which later, however, supplemented their resources by subsidy. It is estimated that some twenty-five Japanese schools had been established in Peru by 1941, and about four times that many in Brazil. Even before Brazil entered the war, these schools were for the most part "interventored"---strictly supervised by Brazilian authorities---or closed. Nevertheless such an item as the following, published in Folha Carioca of Rio de Janeiro on September 28, 1944, reported a not uncommon incident, the trial and conviction to six-months imprisonment of "a Japanese subject, resident in Silo Paulo, for having violated the nationalization laws by teaching the Japanese language to twelve children of Nipponese origin."

Japanese newspapers in Argentina continued publication throughout the war, and were closed in August, 1945 by Juan Cooke when he was appointed Foreign Minister.

The stress placed by Japan on cultural relations as an instrument of national policy was intensified after Pearl Harbor. The greatness of Asiatic culture as a whole, and the inadequacy of the recognition accorded it by the Western. World, was a frequent topic of radio broadcasts. C. S. Ku, for instance, a Chinese scholar broadcasting an English-language series entitled "This Is the Story" over Radio Tokyo, declared:

The West came to the East to impart, but not to learn, which was a misfortune as all will recognize now. Perhaps Asia did have more to begin by learning from the West, but at the same time, what misunderstandings, what eventual mis-steps, friction and unhappiness could have been avoided, had the West received, in proportion what they gave to the East.(35)

Another broadcast from Tokyo declared: "Speaking from the cultural viewpoint, despite the fact that Asia has the highest civilization and today has a glorious culture of her own, she permitted the establishment of the cultures of the United States and Britain, and thereby lost the qualification of an individual continent of Asia. Unless the foregoing matters are thoroughly and perfectly revived, the liberation of Asia cannot be termed accomplished."(36)

Reporting in Malayan to Indonesia the Greater East Asia Convention held in the fall of 1943, with delegates from Malaya, Burma, the Philippines, Java and other regions, Radio Tokyo commented:

War brings also complete culture which it is to be hoped will create a new world . . . . In order to build a complete Greater East Asia during this war, you must all unite the spirit of the people . . . . Every nation in this common prosperity sphere in Greater East Asia must understand that one of the ways to achieve this aim is to join together by means of culture.(37)

Not only in the foreign language broadcasts but in the Home and Empire Service the same note was struck. Kiyotaka Uchida, in an address over the Hsinkiang Radio asserted in October, 1943 that from a cultural standpoint, war was being waged to the utmost by the Japanese, a war that would decide "the winner in culture": "Oriental culture and oriental civilization will win if we win this Greater East Asia war," which was, he said, not Japan's war only, but that of Asia's billion as well.(38) In another Japanese Home Service Broadcast, on cultural research for the construction of the Greater East Asia Sphere, Yasusaburu (Tsurumi) of the Greater East Asia Spiritual Research also characterized the war as "a war for culture." Italy, he said, had been famed for culture, but "a culture that leads a nation to destruction cannot rightly be so called." Occidental culture had been drawing the Japanese away from their own: "True culture cannot underestimate the value of a man . . . . What is our culture? Our culture is that which teaches our way of happiness to every member of the Greater East Asia Sphere. Our culture is different from what the Occidental believes in. Our mission in this war is to teach the Imperial way. This war will expel the occidental concept of culture." (39)

The Greater East Asia Ancient Culture Federation, "composed of persons affiliated to Japan and China," was organized with the support "of the Greater East Asia Ministry and prominent individuals of China" and with the avowed purpose "of effecting friendly relations between Japan and China through study of the culture of ancient time."(40) Its inaugural undertaking was a round table conference at Tokyo in July, 1943, attended by scholars carrying on research in the cultural history of China and of Japan. In the same year the Nippon Cultural Service Society inaugurated a project for publishing in the languages of the several countries a collection of works representative of Greater East Asian culture; a project designed, according to Domei, "to secure a vigorous cultural inter-relationship among the countries of the Co-Prosperity Sphere." The Japanese books for translation were chosen by a committee "of forty prominent writers," and a similar selection of works for translation into Japanese was requested from each of the other countries.(41)

Regional projects were evolved independently within the larger effort. A Domei broadcast made the following announcement, for example:

In order to promote advanced culture among the people of Bali, who for centuries have been influenced by superstitions and habits derived from a special branch of Hinduism, a Bali Cultural Research Society has been organized here under sponsorship of the Japanese Military authorities. The Society will undertake also the compilation of the history of Bali culture. . . The Bali Cultural Research Society, after gathering a wide collection of data, will publish pamphlets illustrated with photographs, to teach by degrees true and worthwhile principles to the inhabitants, leading them away from superstitious habits and customs based on various religious rites. At the same time the Society is obtaining the services of Idaptomarong, native scholar and authority on Bali history, who will compile Bali cultural history in order to disseminate a correct account of the Island's culture.(42)

In an extensive broadcast in Spanish to South America on December 30, 1943, Radio Tokyo discussed the religious policy of the Japanese Government with relation to Greater East Asia. It included the following statements:

As religion is of such primordial importance for every people, any government in any country which has proceeded to suppress the religions for any reason has had to experience grave obstacles . . . . This is the reason why Japan, upon initiating war operations in the southern regions, adopted the firm policy of respecting and protecting the religion of each local town. Among the various religions prevalent in the zones under the Japanese domination, the most outstanding are the Moslem religion, widespread through Malaya and the former Dutch possessions of the East Indies, and the Catholic religion, which is an object of devotion by the Filipino people. The attitude of the Japanese forces toward these two most important religions in these regions is the most respectful and benign possible, so that the attitude is the object of profound gratitude on the part of the inhabitants everywhere.

The fact that when a great Moslem festival was held in Malaya the Japanese lent all sorts of help, such as granting them special ships and permitting advances on salary, is still fresh in our mind.

As for the Catholic religion . . . the Japanese Imperial Government set up a Legation in the Holy See shortly after the outbreak of the War in spite of having much [to occupy its attention].

To what is due this so respectful attitude of the Japanese forces in regard to religion? Undoubtedly it comes from the traditionally spontaneous religious sentiment existing among the Japanese people . . . . Freedom of religion was proclaimed under the Government of restored Imperial power in 1875 . . . the religious policy cultivated by such a traditional spirit and with such historic antecedents is being sustained firmly so that there is no doubt that it will continue, greatly to the moral well-being of the people in the zones under Japanese domination.

The East Asia Religious League, embracing the Shinto, Buddhist, Christian, and Mohammedan religions in Japan, held a conference at Tokyo in June, 1943 for the purpose of discussing "ways and means of realizing the closest religious cooperation among the member races in the Co-Prosperity Sphere." Four hundred delegates of religious organizations attended. "The inaugural session of the conference, which was suggested by the Imperial Rule Assistance Association heard felicitatory messages from the Education Minister, the Asiatic Affairs Minister and the president of the Board of Information, as well as the Chinese and Thai Ambassadors." (43) This League formed an East Asia Religious Music Society, which, established to further "unity of one billion inhabitants of East Asia by means of religious music," inaugurated its activities with "a great religious concert at the Hibiya Civic Auditorium at Tokyo," performing "the religious music that belongs to Shintoism, Buddhism, and Mohammedanism."(44)

Cultural relationships through the religious approach were extremely diversified and carefully worked out with ideological idiosyncrasies always in mind. The following scattered examples are typical. A pictorial magazine on Japanese Buddhists edited by the International Buddhist Society which began publication in 1943 "to promote the exchange of Buddhist culture between Japan and other countries of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere" was publicized in Domei despatches.(45) According to a series of Japanese radio broadcasts---which in spite of their particularity as to circumstance were not wholly convincing---Buddha's ashes were removed to Japan in the spring of 1944. Japan announced intention to "rebuild pagodas destroyed in Burma by Anglo-American air raids." The traditional grain festival of the Indonesians, the Pasan Malang, held at Macassar, received support from the Japanese military government, which erected a pavilion "to reveal Japan's activities in all fields" and gave special encouragement to the sports contests.(46) When in observance of the birthday of the Chinese sea-god Kew-Leong-Yesh pilgrims climbed the Temple of the One Thousand Two Hundred Steps at Paya Terubong, that fact also was widely proclaimed by Domei.(47) An exchange of radio greetings between Japanese and Javanese Moslems, in the Japanese, Malayan, and Arabic languages, was declared to mark "a new epoch in religious relations between Japan and Java." (48) The "Church Home News" of Radio Tokyo beamed in English to the western United States a program honoring the birthday of Joe Nijima, founder of Doshissha University, and made special mention of two books: Catholicism in Japan, by Uho Obisawa, and A History of Roman Catholicism in Nagasaki Province by Yasua Iwakawa.

To enable the 100,000 Moslems in Mengchiang [Inner Mongolia] to participate in the construction of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, the Federated Autonomous Government of Mengchiang today announced the policy for educating and guiding them. [This is the voice of Radio Tokyo, June 18, 1943]. According to the announcement, the policy aims to educate and raise the status of the Moslems so as to qualify them for the work of constructing the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere. It also aims to protect and purify their religion, promote harmony with other races and instil in them anti-Communism. In order to carry out this policy, the Government will foster vocational training and industrial enterprise; give guidance in improvement of living, sanitation and hygiene; organize an elementary school system for religious guidance and conduct house-to-house investigations.(49)

The Japanese Military Administration in Java gave official recognition to two Moslem institutes of which the declared objectives were "to propagate their religion in line with the noble idea of the construction of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere and to push on the cultural work through public work."(50)

Reactions to this religious aspect of the Japanese cultural relations program were reported frequently by radio. A Domei broadcast in English to the American Zone in September, 1943, declared that in Iba of the Philippine Province of Zambales, "the local Methodist church is taking a lead to popularize the Japanese language as the common language of Greater East Asia and has added Japanese to its secondary school curriculum . . . ."(51) A few days later in another American-beamed broadcast Domei reported that "interest among the religious elements to learn the Japanese language is being more widely and more extensively manifest than ever. It is learned [that] among the hundreds who were taking an examination in Manila for Japanese-language teacher's certificates yesterday, there were more than thirty nuns and Sisters of Mercy. One nun said that Japanese is a full, rich language which is worthy of becoming the medium of expression of Greater East Asia: 'I hope to teach the language to students not just as a language but with the idea it is a common language linking all East Asia.' "(52)

In November of the same year "A Call to Unity" by Nathan Samno, General Secretary of the Evangelican Church of the Philippines, broadcast over Japanese-controlled Manila Radio, declared:

Because they have a common sacred book, the Holy Scriptures, a common faith, and a common Saviour, I believe that all, the Evangelican, the Roman Catholic, and the Philippine Independent Church . . . should reveal that they belong to one religion, which is the religion of Jesus Christ, and work together for the building of the Kingdom of God in the Philippines, and particularly for the spiritual unity of the Filipino people . . . . A book entitled Japanese Religion . . . says: "Shinto teaches the way of oneness . . . . The greatness of Japan lies in the manifestation of Shinto . . . . Our triumph in war, our scientific and artistic triumphs are due to Shinto . The Evangelican Church has become united and hopes thereby to aid in unifying the Filipino people . . . . Heed, then, the call to Unity . . . the call to racial unity, the call to political unity, and the call to spiritual unity.(53)

On August 31, 1945 Father Patrick Byrne, "an American Catholic priest who was permitted to walk the streets of ancient Kyoto freely all through the war," "the only American free in Kyoto," was quoted by INS correspondent Howard Handleman as stating that throughout the war "the Japanese permitted me to say Mass alone but refused permission for Japanese Catholics to attend."(54) Nevertheless, religious freedom for all worshippers as an item in cultural propaganda had been reported in the following fashion by a Domei broadcast in English under a Kuala Lumpur dateline (December 3, 1943)

Local religious leaders point unanimously to the absolute freedom all religions enjoy from any sort of interference by the State. Anglo-American lies about Nippon's attitude toward religion is exposed to ridicule by them, for this non-interference rendered all religions free from any political bias. In addition, they said the Nippon Military Administration has been giving all material assistance to various religions to conduct activities. The Roman Catholics, said the Reverend Father D. Perrisond of St. John's Church, are particularly thankful to the Nippon Administration, not only for its humane tolerance but timely help extended now and again. In fact, the Convent and Orphanage still receive a subsidy from the Government. In due appreciation of this magnanimity, he added, St. John's Church will hold a special prayer for Nippon's victory. The Reverend S. S. Pakanathan, of the local Methodist Church, said, "The Methodist Churches of Selangor Pahang and their pastors have been receiving fair treatment since the outbreak of the Greater East Asia War from the Government. We have been permitted to conduct our worship services and religious activities freely without any hindrance whatsoever. We have been cooperating with the Government in shepherding members of our congregation so they may live their normal lives contentedly and help one another. The Methodist Church is no less thankful than other Churches and a special prayer meeting will be held." "The Moslems in Selangor," said Kathu of Kuala Lumpur, "are very thankful to Nippon's administration for the religious peace granted them. Our anxiety about Nippon violating the mosques, as propagandized by the British, was set at rest from the earliest days of the Nippon occupation. We are extremely grateful for Nippon cooperation, and in the spirit of reciprocity we hold a special prayer for the victory of Nippon in the War of Greater East Asia, whose moral aims day by day become clearer and clearer."

Likewise, the Reverend Bhikku Dhammadassi, speaking in behalf of the Selangor Buddhists, referred in glowing terms . to two hundred military officers of the Nippon Administration who have attended Full Moon services at the [Buddhist] Temple [of Kuala Lumpur]. He expressed the gratitude of the Buddhists, and added that the Buddhists will pray for the triumph of moral justice.

In November, 1943 Radio Tokyo reported that the Greater East Asia Religious Federation had decided to inaugurate "a strong movement to contribute to the construction of the Greater East Asia through religion in accordance with the announcement of the Greater East Asia joint declarations," thus "uniting the strength of the four religious organizations of Shinto, Buddhism, Christianity and Mohammedanism in the Greater East Asia." Announcement was made also of the organization of "the Greater East Asia Religious Liaison Cooperative Associations for the plan of culture of the Greater East Asia and to engender closer relationship."(55)

Early in 1944 the Japanese Ministry of Education announced creation of a Religious Enlightenment Policy Commission, or Religious Cultural Measures Committee, "a powerful body that can control the whole of the religious world." With the Minister of Education as presiding officer, the Commission's thirty members included representatives of the Ministries of War, Navy, Justice, Education, Greater East Asia, and Home Affairs, and of the Board of Information and the Legislative Bureau. Averring that "eighteen Shinto sects, twenty-eight Buddhist sects, and two Christian denominations are all striving to cooperate with the national policy," the Commission stated its purpose to be "rousing the ardor of the 300,000 teachers and priests belonging to 100,000 temples and churches."(56) Within the year-by October, 1944---this commission had acquired a differently expressed orientation under the new name of the "Dai Nippon Wartime Religious Patriotic Service Association" (Dai Nippon Senji Shukyo Hokuku Kai) a "group of integrated religions," the object of which was to "cooperate effectively in the prosecution of the War, as well as in the establishment of an East Asia based on morality and justice." The Association, like the preceding Commission, included Shintoism, Buddhism, and Christianity, but made no mention of the Moslems, and, again like its predecessor, had the Minister of Education as chairman.(57)

The avowed nationalistic note was sounded again strongly in the religious program when, in May, 1945, a Japanese Home and Empire Service broadcast declared: "The nation's religions have greatly contributed to the boundless development of the Empire. Herein exists the main object of religion."(58) Thereafter, and to the close of the war, monitored broadcasts of Japanese origin dealing with religious topics left off being arguments for Greater East Asia unification through religious culture, or expressions of fact or opinion indicating progress toward that goal, and became impassioned utterances of the philosophy of the war gods of Japan.

In view of the traditional subjection of Japanese women, an extremely interesting feature of Japan's wartime cultural program was the prominence given to women's activities in foreign language broadcasts from Tokyo. In April, 1943 Domei announced in Spanish to South America that a farewell meeting had been held at Bangkok "in honor of the Indian women who will soon leave for Burma as volunteers in the army of Free India,"(59) and announced in another broadcast equal pay for women workers in munitions factories in Japan. A June broadcast praised the adequacy and scientific efficiency of "maternity rooms for Moslem women" newly established at Macassar.(60) In September, Radio Tokyo, broadcasting to Europe in Italian, announced that an essay by "Mrs. Mahomed Paturi, an Indonesian journalist employed in the local office of Domei in Djakarta won the contest on the founding of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, sponsored by the Japanese newspaper Mainichi." The broadcast added: "The head of the Office of General Affairs of our Military Government in Java, exultant at the fact that the first prize winner in this contest was a native Javanese . . . encouraged her to interest herself even more assiduously in her work as a journalist."(61) "The Church News Hour," broadcast in English to the western United States by Radio Tokyo, reported the visit to Japan of "Mrs. Shimizu, a Christian woman educator of Peking," with a two-fold purpose: "to create proper understanding regarding China and to solicit funds for a Christian girls' school of which she is principal."(62) The Japanese novelist, Jiru Osaragi, on a cultural mission to Java including a series of lectures, was accompanied by the Japanese woman writer, Masako Inouye.(63)

In addition to cultural approaches on the basis of a common Asiatic background and of religious beliefs held in common, Japan's cultural relations program had especial regional orientation for each region of southeast Asia.

The cooperation of Thailand, as a sovereign state, was courted assiduously, and with the more assurance since Japan and Thailand have had for several hundred years a well-established commercial relationship. Japanese cultural propaganda emphasized the arts and took the line that the two countries have a common racial origin and religious beliefs in common. Occupation of Thailand by Japan, however, counteracted such arguments.

The Cultural Treaty with Thailand signed on October 28, 1942 and ratified December 21, was frankly described by Tokyo as a move for future treaties with other Asiatic nations that would facilitate "cultural expansion" and "the promotion of military and economic collaboration."(64)

The following is the full text of this cultural agreement, as announced by the Japanese Board of Information and reported by Domei on December 22, 1942:

His Majesty, the Emperor of Japan, and His Majesty, the King of Thailand, being desirous of contributing to the advancement of the culture of East Asia, and at the same time strengthening further the bond of friendship so happily existing between the two countries by promoting more and more cultural relations between the two countries, and with mutual respect for the intrinsic features of the culture of their respective countries and in close collaboration, have resolved to conclude a cultural agreement for that purpose, and have appointed as their plenipotentiaries His Majesty the Emperor of Japan, Masayuki Tani, Minister of Foreign Affairs; His Majesty the King of Thailand; Direck Chayanama, Ambassador Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary of Thailand to Japan, who after having communicated to each other their respective full powers found in due form and have agreed upon the following articles:

Cultural Consolidation---ARTICLE I. The high contracting parties shall endeavor to deepen the mutual knowledge and understanding between the two countries by consolidating the foundation of cultural relations between them and shall collaborate most closely for this purpose in all cultural fields.

Convening of Conferences---ARTICLE II. The high contracting parties shall from time to time convene cultural conferences for the purpose of deliberation on the progress of the development of the culture of the two countries and shall endeavor to extend assistance to conferences organized for the said purpose.

Development of Institutions---ARTICLE III. The high contracting parties shall endeavor to establish, maintain and develop institutions contributing to the promotion of culture between the two countries and shall mutually afford every possible facility in respect thereof. The institutions referred to in the preceding paragraph shall include other scientific organizations, institutions, and sanitary institutions for charitable purposes.

Chairs of Culture---ARTICLE 1V. Each of the high contracting parties shall give particular consideration to the establishment, maintenance, and development in universities of the country of chairs on the culture of the other. Each of the high contracting parties shall give particular consideration to periodical exchange, sending or inviting professors, scholars and specialists for the purpose of conducting courses or delivering lectures on the culture of the two countries. The high contracting parties shall mutually afford every possible facility for the execution of the provisions in the preceding three paragraphs.

Research Workers---ARTICLE V. The high contracting parties shall by mutual accord periodically exchange, or shall send or invite research workers, students, and pupils for the purpose of studying the culture of the two countries. The high contracting parties shall endeavor to exchange, send or invite apprentice-students and short-term students.

Scholarship Funds---The high contracting parties shall mutually afford every possible facility for the execution of the provisions of the preceding two paragraphs and shall give consideration to the establishment of scholarship funds. Each of the high contracting parties shall afford similar facilities to scholars and specialists of the other coming for the purpose of studying the culture of its own country.

Authors and Artists---ARTICLE VI. The high contracting parties shall encourage the activities of authors, artists and religionists whom they deem contributory to promotion of cultural relations between the two countries and shall endeavor to exchange, send or invite such persons.

Plays, Dances, Music---The high contracting parties shall encourage the performance of plays, dances and music which they deem contributory to the promotion of cultural relations between the two countries and shall endeavor to exchange, send or invite individuals and parties engaged in these pursuits.

Exchange of Publications---ARTICLE VII. Each of the high contracting parties shall endeavor to supply the other, in as large quantities and as frequently as possible, with publications, cinematographic films, lantern slides, photographs, gramophone records and musical scores of its country which it deems contributory to promoting the mutual knowledge and understanding between the two countries, and the other shall give special consideration as to their preservation, distribution, presentation and exhibition so that these may be utilized effectively in its country.

Works of Art---The high contracting parties shall exchange lists, publications and works of art of each country deemed to be worthy of being introduced to the other and shall endeavor to introduce and diffuse them by appropriate means.

Books and Exhibits---The high contracting parties shall endeavor to extend their necessary good offices and assistance for the translation and reproduction of the above-mentioned publications and works of art. Each of the high contracting parties shall endeavor to extend the collection of books and exhibits concerning the other in libraries and museums in its country and shall afford every possible facility to nationals of the other in regard to the utilization of these.

Organization of Exhibitions---ARTICLE VIII. The high contracting parties shall from time to time organize exhibitions for the purpose of promoting the mutual knowledge and understanding of sciences, fine arts and industrial arts of the two countries, and shall endeavor to extend the necessary good offices and assistance in organizing exhibitions held for such purpose.

Radio Broadcasts-A--RTICLE IX. Each of the high contracting parties shall have radio organizations in its country make periodical broadcasts to the other and shall have them relay periodical broadcasts from the other. Each of the high contracting parties shall from time to time have radio organizations in its country broadcast lectures, entertainments and music concerning the culture of the other.

Athletic Contests---ARTICLE X. The high contracting parties shall endeavor to exchange, send or invite parties of youth and juvenile athletic teams in order to promote amicable intercourse between their nations. The high contracting parties shall endeavor to exchange, send or invite sight-seeing parties and educational tour parties in order to promote the mutual knowledge and understanding of the two countries. The high contracting parties shall mutually afford every possible facility for the execution of the provisions of the preceding two paragraphs.

ARTICLE XI. The high contracting parties shall endeavor to establish a cultural institute each in the capital of the other for the purpose of contributing to the promotion of cultural relations between the two countries and every possible facility to the activities of said institutes.

Cultural Committee---ARTICLE XII. The high contracting parties shall establish a cultural working committee in Tokyo and Bangkok respectively in order to maintain liaison between the two countries regarding the execution of the provision of the present agreement. Diplomatic authorities of the high contracting parties shall decide by mutual accord details concerning the organization and function of said committee.

Diplomatic Duties---ARTICLE XIII. Diplomatic authorities of the high contracting parties shall decide by mutual accord details concerning the execution of the provisions of the present agreement.

Ratification---ARTICLE XIV. The present agreement shall be ratified and the ratification thereof shall be exchanged at Bangkok as soon as possible. The present agreement shall be enforced from the date of exchange of the ratification and shall remain in force for 10 years from that date.

Year's Notice for Abrogation---In case neither of the high contracting parties shall have given notice to the other one year prior to the expiration of said 10-year period of its intention to terminate the present agreement, it shall continue in force until the expiration of one year from the date on which either party shall have given such notice.

Affixing of Seals---In witness whereof the respective Plenipotentiaries have signed the present agreement and have hereunto affixed their seals. Done in duplicate in the Japanese and Thai languages in Tokyo this 28th day of the 10th month in the 17th year of Showa, corresponding to the 28th day, 10th month, in the 2,485th year of the Buddhist era.

Signed       Masayuki Tani       Direck Chayanama.

In Burma also, where nationalistic feeling is deep-rooted and tenacious, Japan apparently felt that there was little profit to be had from large financial investment by the Japanese Government in a cultural program attempting to Nipponize the people. Many cultural activities were, however, carried over. A Japanese cultural institute was organized at Rangoon in 1942 by the puppet ruler, Ba Maw, with a membership made up "of a few Burmese newspapermen and authors and the Japanese press." Toward the close of 1943 Ba Maw announced that plans were underway for a Nippon-Burma Cultural Society at Rangoon patterned on the Burma-Nippon Cultural Society at Tokyo.(65) It inaugurated its activities in the Burmese capital February 14, 1944 with an address by the Japanese Ambassador, Renzo Sawade, who asserted that "if Burma so studies Nippon culture as to make it part and parcel of Burmese civilization, that will be an enormous contribution to the upbuilding of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere."

Burma has the highest percentage of literacy in southeast Asia. By the spring of 1943, Tokyo reported that textbooks for the schools had been revised "with new thoughts brought in to plant . . . racial pride and healthy ambition in the minds of Burma," and that fifty Japanese-language schools had been opened in Rangoon.(66) Later in the same year one thousand Burmese schoolteachers from all sections of the country attended a special course at the University of Rangoon designed "to promote knowledge of things Japanese among Burmese teachers." Addressing this group at the opening of the University's autumn session, Ba Maw assured them, "We are creating history. The old order will never return."(67)

Burmese was made the language of instruction in schools and colleges, while other oriental languages, with especial emphasis on Japanese, were stressed throughout the educational system.(68) In November, 1942, Ba Maw, in an interview given a Nichi Nichi correspondent and quoted by Radio Berlin, announced that English would be dropped completely.(69) However, in spite of this official ban, English continued to be employed in Burmese schools until March, 1943 because of the practical consideration that all records and textbooks are in that language. Even the much-publicized Japanese-Burmese dictionary has definitions in English.(70) Radio Rangoon, Japanese-controlled station competing with Chungking and New Delhi, broadcast to India, in thirteen different languages, programs including Japanese language lessons three times a week.(71)

Noting that "one cannot actually 'Nipponize' people with a strong national and cultural life of their own, such as the Thai or the Burmese," the Tokyo correspondent of Der Neue Tag of Berne, Switzerland made the following observations in an article entitled "Japan's Influence in the Pacific Area":

Japanese cultural activity in the South [Pacific] is characterized by the increase in the number of schools and the spread of the Japanese language. Since 1941 in the Malay States the number of [pupils in] public schools has increased from 1760 to 4000; in the Philippines from 300,000 to 1,000,000; in Java from 1.5 to 2.5 millions and in Celebes from 110,000 to 220,000. Lessons are conducted in the language of the country, but the rudiments of Japanese are taught, usually by local people. Owing to the shortage of instructors, increase in high schools and vocational schools does not take place at the same rate, but much has been done: Shonan has a wholly Japanese medical college. The Japanese are really disseminators of culture in the South, where they promote popular education that had been neglected by the former masters.

The Japanese language is taught not only in public schools but in special language-schools in the occupied territories and in administrative courses for the training of native civil servants. In Shonan there are 16 Japanese language schools and 30,000 natives, i.e. Malayans, Indonesians, Indians, Chinese, etc., already know Japanese quite well. They are mostly civil servants, teachers, telephone operators, railway employees, etc. English is no longer permitted for official use and is generally frowned upon. In Java the recognized languages are Malay and Japanese. All Indonesians learn Japanese quickly and easily.

Apart from language, practical work with the Japanese impresses the Japanese spirit on the natives. The ways in which the Japanese establish schools, train recruits, conduct industrial enterprises, are radically different from the old Occidental methods. The Japanese infuse everywhere their own tradition. Thus it is that the Southerners see many things now in a wholly Asiatic and no longer half-Western manner. The feeling that their former master's approach to problems is not the only one has at any rate been awakened for once and for all. Japan has shown many Oriental countries that an independent and Asiatic future is possible, provided they are willing to support it and fight for it. Therefore, even though the present armed conflict between Japan and its enemies has not yet been resolved, it has already been established beyond doubt that the Asiatic ideals and aims which Japan has brought into the Pacific regions will not die out.(72)

In October, 1943 General Masaharu Homma, former Commander-in-Chief of the Japanese expeditionary forces in the Philippines, declared that because of the great difference of the Filipinos from the other peoples of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere in religion and in culture, "which have been influenced by North America," the people of the Philippines "must conquer such difficulties in their determination to be reborn as Asiatics in their manner of thinking and judging things." That same month, members of the Nippon Bunka Kaikan and of the Cultural Federation of the Philippines, meeting together in Manila, agreed "to work in close cooperation for the benefit of the Philippines in particular and the Orient in general. Filipino experts . . . in various fields of culture . . . signified their eagerness to contribute all they can for realization of the aims of the cultural societies."(73)

However, a Domei despatch to East Asia in May, 1944 said that Filipinos had been influenced for so many years by American "motion pictures and dancing" that it was not easy to "banish America" from Philippine life by "returning 18,000,000 persons made up of nearly fifty tribes and seventy dialects" to their "original oriental ways": "Our cultural war in the Philippines is devoted mainly to destroying and removing the materialistic culture introduced by America and restoring the original cultures of the Philippines and the Orient"; a task, Domei concluded, that "American bewitchment" was hindering.(74)

In the Japanese-controlled areas of the Pacific the cultural campaign was aimed primarily at the younger generation. The basis of it was the appeal to race pride and race hatred, a call to the Asiatic world to be Asia, with emphasis on the educational advantages offered by Japan to students from other countries. The bonds of a common religion were also stressed in dealing with countries with which that bond exists.

On January 28, 1943 the Tokyo radio quoted a report by the Ministry of Finance---the latest available at this writing ---saying that the supplemented 'Japanese budget for 1943 (apparently referring to the fiscal year ending April 20, 1943) included "about 150,000,000 yen for renovation of cultural education." The same broadcast indicated that this cultural appropriation represented 1.3 per cent of the total budget for the civilian agencies of Japan for 1943.

During peace negotiations, at the end of August, 1945 the importance of renewing the cultural contacts between Japan and the United States was stressed by both official and unofficial Japanese spokesmen. The Reverend Michio Ozaki, Chief of the American Asiatic Board of the Japanese Christian Association, contributed an article to the newspaper Yomiuri Hochi (quoted in a Tokyo radio news broadcast on August 28), making a plea for "mutual understanding." In spite of "some impolite elements, among them some that are anti-Japanese," many Americans, he said, have shown a desire to understand Japan that has even been extended to a sincere interest in the Japanese ceremonial with regard to tea and Japanese aesthetics as shown in flower arrangement: "enthusiasm for the study of Japan is prevailing among the Americans" as a general rule, not merely as a "temporary fad during the war period." Premier Prince Naruhiko Higashi-Kuni at a press conference on August 29, 1945, reported in a Domei news despatch, declared that in the field of foreign relations the all-out Japanese war effort would be transformed immediately to "cooperation with other peoples and the cultural development of mankind."

An editorial of the same date in the influential Tokyo newspaper Asahi urged Japan to give up the "idea that might is right and subscribe to new internationalism based on mutual and peaceful cooperation among free nations."