The conditions belonging to the college man create the motives inspiring him to enter his country's service in time of war.

Of these conditions perhaps the most obvious is the college man's age. He is, on entering as a freshman, about eighteen years old. This age and the following four years form the close of the period of his emotional, and the beginning of his mature intellectual, growth. The feelings are strong, easily stirred, readily moving toward the great, the sublime, the commanding. With emotionalism is associated the faculty of imagination. This youth thinks in pictures. If the developing and enriched intellect furnishes material and content of these pictures, the feelings move the hand of imagination to paint them in brightly glowing colors. The sense of adventure fascinates. The possibilities which the adventure holds forth stir the soul. The glory of the adventure, even if it be touched with the probability of death, beckons. The highest ambition of this manly youth --- human liberation --- gets hold of every part of his being. I can --- I will --- I must --- he cries. Of course, to a certain extent, such feelings and imaginations belong to every young man. Enrollment in the army or navy by the student is only a part of the heroism of youth. But such feelings do at least seem to rise to a higher level, to a whiter crest, and to assume more brilliant coloring, on the brow and in the bosom of the college man.

Another condition belonging to the student is his sense of democracy. He is a member of a little group in which equals moving with equals represent the common lot. These men are a part of the great third estate. They are as pebbles flung together on the same beach by the hand of destiny to be rounded and polished by the same forces. The differences which divide men outside academic walls have a certain value; but the value is much smaller than ordinary humanity assigns. Wealth, social distinction, heritage of a noble name, militate quite as much against as for the student's timely advantage. The group as seen in a fraternity house represents the par inter pares. The floor of the classroom is built on one level, and that floor has only a few square feet. The college chapel, the table in the reading room, the benches in the chemical, and the physical, laboratory represent a community and an equality of interest. The gridiron and diamond stand for brotherhood and coöperation. These forces, outwardly and materially visible, are only the sign of the inward forces which unite. College men think together, even if not alike. They are moved by similar ambitions and stirred by like motives and ideals, even if the consummate achievement be not alike. A thousand or a hundred hearts beat as one. Therefore, a wave of patriotism touches segregated and separated individualities, and combines them into unities. One bugle call is heard by a thousand ears; one flag is seen by a thousand eyes. As Oliver Wendell Holmes said at a commencement of his Alma Mater, in the midst of the Civil War in 1863,--- "The hero in his laurels sits next to the divine rustling in the dry garland of his Doctorate. The poet in his crown of bays, the critic, in his wreath of ivy, clasp each other's hands, members of the same happy family. This is the birthday feast for every one of us whose forehead has been sprinkled from the font inscribed Christo et Ecclesiae. We have no badges but our diplomas, no distinctions but our years of graduation. This is the Republic carried into the University; all of us are born equal into this great fraternity."(1) The response, the reaction, the patriotic stimulus, work on the feeling of each and of every other man, reënforcing, increasing, magnifying, developing it. Excitement begets excitement. Thrill stirs thrill. Each man goes where others go, and the others go where each goes. The democracy of the group promotes the martial enrollment.

This essential quality of democracy seems not to have suffered under the conditions of the modern college. The college of the early and middle decades of the Nineteenth Century was a college of peculiarly united interests. Students of the same class studied the same subjects. Year by year, the progress was regular and general. The two ancient languages, mathematics, with certain excursions, more or less brief, into English, philosophy, the modern languages, science, and history; formed the foundation of the orderly academic structure. With a few minor exceptions, each student did what the other did. Of the modern college, however, diversity, separateness, individualism, is the distinctive mark. Students of the same class are divided by many and diverse interests. Members of different classes are usually joined together in the same subjects of study. The elective system stands for individuality of choice. Each man pursues his own will under the general supervision of college officers. Yet, despite these individualisms, the college spirit is still one, the college atmosphere one, and the general aim one. The democratic movement and condition of equality is still regnant.

The democracy of war and the democracy of education are impressively alike. For war makes equals. War promotes equality between men of the same grade or kind. If it create differences and distinctions between different grades of service, it yet makes men of the same order equal. All privates in the ranks are alike. Exterior distinctions are lost. The titled are as obscure as the obscure; the obscure as distinguished as the titled. The poor are as rich as the rich and the rich are as poor as the poor. A boy of distinguished ancestry and education, brought up in peculiarly exclusive surroundings, was serving at the front as a private. In a letter to his mother he told about two of his special chums. One of them was Erine O'Callahan and the other Billie Sweeny. He wrote to his mother--- "You can't beat those boys on the face of the earth. I want you to call upon their mothers." Education is likewise democratic --- a common obedience for all men, themselves personally equal or unequal, and a common opportunity. It has been said that in Germany there were no equals---only superiors or inferiors. In America one might, with equal truth, say, there are only equals. America holds open one educational gateway. It paves one road to learning, and that not royal. It points out one goal which it inspires each to reach. Autocracy in education is narrow and narrowing, inclined to accept social stratification. Democracy in education is broad, as broad as human nature. Autocracy in education is prone to being materialistic. Democracy is idealistic. Aristocracy in education is liable to forget humanity's hard, complex problems. Democracy in education is sympathizing and inspiring of every worthy endeavor.

A further motive for enrollment, and also its origin, is the fundamental element of patriotism, both historical and personal. The college man loves his country for the reason which leads the mature civilian to love it, the reason found in his birth within its borders and in its beneficence to him and to his. But also the college man loves it because of a peculiar sense of possession. It is his country. He belongs to it, and it belongs to him. With this sense is often joined the sense of her peril and also the sense that she may have suffered or be in danger of suffering an insult. It is his place to retaliate or to defend. His patriotism is rather a love of her than a movement of the will, although the heart's love proves itself in overt acts. The patriotism does show itself in the college songs and the commemoration odes of all countries.

Is there any poem of the war in which this spirit is more fully voiced than in Winifred M. Letts' "The Spires of Oxford"?

These lines are a confirmation of Lowell's Commemoration Ode of fifty years ago.

The motive of the college man is also manifest in what might be called interpatriotism. The student loves his own country and his fellow citizens much. He loves all countries and his human brothers more. In the Great War French students fought for France and British students too fought for France. They also fought for liberty and fraternity, for all. Oxford, Aberdeen, and Edinburgh men died for England and Scotland, but they also died for ravaged Belgium and for damaged humanity. American college students enrolled and served in danger-zones long before America entered the war. They made the great sacrifice for other people than their own. As President Eliot, speaking to the Harvard men at the time of the Spanish War, said: "What are the fundamental and legitimate motives . . . which lead one to enlist? There are two which seem to me very weighty; and these two really make but one, but that one how strong! The first is the sense that every member of human society is mainly indebted for his own character, resources and happiness to the slowly developed qualities and slowly accumulated resources of the particular society into which he was born. Society gives the individual everything which makes his life valuable to him; he, in return, owes his life and his all to society whenever its interests are imperilled. This principle applies in a tribe of savages, but with greatest force in the most civilized society."(2) The first members of the Harvard brotherhood who were laid in their graves in France were saluted in these words: "Ce sera une date historique, cette journée d'automne où nous avons enseveli en terre de France nos amis, conduits au petit cimetière avec un piquet de soldats français et américains, les corps couverts du Star Spangled Banner et du Tricolore. Sur leur tombe, notre colonel prononça ces simples mots: 'je vous salue, enfants d'une noble race; reposez dans cette terre de France où vous êtes tombés pour la plus belle cause! '"

There is a still more fundamental motive dwelling in the bosom of the student. It is hard to interpret this motive. It should not be called the longing for adventure. Such a motive is more or less unworthy. It may be called the sense of duty. It is rather more than an imperative. It may be called spiritual unrest, but it is more than an emotion. It is rather a yearning for life,--- for life fuller, richer, more commanding, more consuming. It is a feeling that one must have experience --- an experience that touches all life, even the universal and the eternal. It is the cosmic sense, urging and moving in the young soul. To this motive Alan Seeger gave voice: "Suddenly the world is up in arms. All mankind takes sides. The same faith that made him surrender himself to the impulses of normal living and of love, force him now to make himself the instrument through which a greater force works out its inscrutable ends through the impulses of terror and repulsion. And with no less a sense of moving in harmony with a universe where masses are in continual conflict and new combinations are engendered out of eternal collisions, he shoulders arms and marches forth with haste." (3)

Akin to this cosmic sense is shown the spirit of supreme sacrifice and of moral passion, which belongs to all youth, but belongs especially to the student. This sense of sacrifice and of passion has been peculiarly significant in this war. The breaking and crushing of the morals and the morale of life by Germany awakened the keenest indignation in the soldier student. He did not count the cost. He felt somewhat as Pascal says of Jesus Christ on the cross: "I must add my wounds to his." The crusader is the youth, and he rejoices to venture all.

                      "For my purpose holds
To sail beyond the sunset, and the baths
Of all the Western Stars, until I die."

In deep contrast to such a worthy motive, two more and very personal conditions emerge. The student is free from domestic responsibility and from vocational engagements. Neither wife nor child looks to him for daily bread. Neither professional duty nor industrial nor commercial service commands him. He is foot-free. Indeed, he is inclined to believe that a military training may prove to be a very acceptable preparation for the business which he finally may choose.

In all these motives and conditions, too, one further great movement is evident. It may be called the instinct of the spiritual in man. It is the impulse to rescue, to help, to serve. It is a fundamental feeling. It is found in every worthy bosom. It constitutes the gentleman. It is not a matter of or for argument, not a balancing of advantages and disadvantages. It may not be even a part of that great Anglo-Saxon service, which we denominate duty. Why did you enlist? -Why shouldn't I enlist? is the questioning answer --- One cannot do other. Such feelings are instinctive in all good men, but are especially instinctive in the bosom of the college man.

For as an Oxford don says: "The beauty of life lies not in living, nor in health and vigor of body, nor in the flash and speed of the mind, but in living with a noble energy, which enlists and mobilizes the noble nature for the doing of noble things. To rise to the measure of a man and to attain to the just beauty of a full humanity consists in gaining conversion of the soul and in entering the service of mankind. He who has turned his eyes to an ideal good which is more worth while than life itself has found life; for he has become a living soul, converted to the light. He who has entered the service of mankind in order to realize among men and for men the ideal good which he has seen has entered into the only perfect joy of living; for he has hid his life with that of his fellows in the common life which is the only true life of man."(4)

In all these lifting and moving sentiments there were present two other feelings deserving recognition. Students were inclined to depreciate their own place and function. They did not wish to be "made much of." They despised eulogy. They couldn't bear laudation, as if their acts were unusual. They had wit and humor to realize their conditions. In serious hours too they thought of being afraid of death as death. They did have a questioning whether when the crisis of a great command might be heard, they would prove true. It was the quickening question that belongs to a gentleman. It was inevitable. The answer, too, was equally inevitable. They met their supreme ordeal without flinching. They died with a cheer.

American college men, students and graduates, moreover, have entered every war which their country has fought. Such enrollment belongs to every nation. Tablets are placed on the walls of the universities of Germany, giving the names of their sons who fell in the War of 1870. Tablets are also set up in the universities of Italy, commemorating the students who fought two generations ago for their once sadly divided, now nobly united, land. The spirit which is felt and the words which are heard in American colleges in the World War, were also manifest in the Civil War of the United, and the Confederate, States. The passion of all college youth for native land and for man seems to be one lasting as life, broad as the world, deep as the deepest human instincts and emotions, indivisible as humanity itself.

Under the spell of such motives, college men, both graduate and undergraduate, entered and served in the war. Their service began at the very beginning. The kind of service, offered from August and September of 1914 up to the month of April, 1917, was, of course, in many respects unlike that given after the entrance of the United States. The earlier service was manifestly far less important and far less general. It was, however, of diverse sorts, and also it took on many elements of the picturesque as well as of the heroic.

The kinds of particular service were no less than five in number. These five were the American Volunteer Motor Ambulance Corps, the American Ambulance Hospital in Paris, Hospital Units outside of Paris like that of or for Servia, the American Distributing Service, and, most picturesque of all, the Foreign Legion. There were, in addition, not a few services of miscellaneous, and even individualistic, character. The United States embassies, aiding American citizens' relief committees, serving in canteens, giving help in relief work in Belgium and France, represent the more important of such miscellaneous and individual work.

The American Volunteer Motor Ambulance Corps was formed and directed by Richard Norton, son of Charles Eliot Norton of Harvard. The work of this Corps, as described by Norton himself, in February, 1916, was of three sorts. One was what he calls the risky and very hard work done during a battle, in rescuing the wounded and bearing them back to stations where surgical attention could be given. There was, also, what Norton calls, "Our regular job": "the post duty, the daily going and coming from certain stations just back of the line to the hospitals with the occasional casualties. During the winter months one carries more sick and sorry than one does wounded, but there is a never-ending trickle of these latter . . . . We sat down for the winter, and posts were arranged to which the wounded are brought. Just who picks out these posts I have never discovered, but the general rule is that they should be as near the actual fighting line as the condition of the roads and general safety permit the cars to go. We have served two such posts. One was all right, though, owing to the mud which prevented the close approach of our cars, the stretcher-bearers had a weary long walk with their painful burden. The other, however, was to my mind most quaintly placed, as it was on the crest of a ridge and in plain view of the enemy. Though the doctors' tents and dug-outs were sheltered by a cluster of pines, the coming and going of the cars were perfectly obvious and daily drew the fire of one of the enemy batteries . . . . At both posts the men did duty for twenty-four hours at a stretch, and had tents pitched under the trees in which they cooked their picnic meals and took what rest they could. Most of the time it rained, and it was always cold. To my way of thinking a tent is a beastly thing. A considerable portion of my life has been passed in them, and no one can convince me they are anything but disgusting . . . . However, they are better than sitting in the mud, so at the posts we sit and get damp till the relief comes, and then hustle back to the base camp, where there are no satisfactory means of getting dry, but where you mop yourself up and steam over any form of fire you or your friends can produce. You see, there is not much in that kind of life but plain, hard, uncomfortable work. So any one who thinks he is coming out here to wander over the stricken field doing the Sir Philip Sidney act to friend and foe alike, protected from harm by the mystical light of heroism playing about his hyacinthine locks, had better stay home. This hero business will only win him the Order of the Wooden Cross. What one really does is to look like a tramp who has passed the night in a ditch and feels as though he were doing ten days 'hard' for it. That is what the ordinary work is."(5)

There is a third kind of work of the Motor Ambulance Corps which Mr. Norton calls "en repos."

"No corps can go on indefinitely at the front. The men get worn out and the cars get out of order. During the early part of this winter our cars stood in the open where the mud was so bad that we often had to pull them out in the morning with the lorry before we could start. There was so little water that sometimes there was insufficient for the radiators. Under such circumstances cleaning the cars was entirely out of the question, and any but absolutely essential repairs had to wait till we could move somewhere else. When, finally, we were relieved by a French convoy, only one-third of our cars could go, and several of the men were working on their nerve."(6)

The second general form of service lay in what was known as the American Ambulance, or American Hospital, in Paris. The opportunity for medical service in Paris was opened in the spring of 1915. The first medical unit to be represented was that of Western Reserve University and of its affiliated hospital, Lakeside, which served from January to April. The Harvard Medical School provided a surgical unit, also, for three months of this year.

Outside and beyond the most outstanding surgical service of Paris was the service rendered in Servia in the first year of the war. This contribution, given under the American Red Cross Sanitary Commission, and under the leadership of Doctor Richard P. Strong, Professor of Tropical Medicine in the Harvard Medical School, was of the utmost significance. Soon after his arrival, in April, Doctor Strong organized an International Health Commission in order to promote the enforcement of medical and surgical orders in all parts of Servia, and also to coördinate the work of the British, the French, the Russians, the Americans, as well as of the Servians, in promoting the health of the people. In this work were engaged public health physicians, sanitary engineers, sanitary inspectors, and laboratory experts of various types. To stamp out contagious diseases, and especially typhus fever, was the great purpose of the Commission, and this purpose was fulfilled with extraordinary efficiency.

Another form of work in which the college men had a primary part, and which has received little mention, is the American Distributing Service. Under this general union, many sorts of work were done and under different organizations. Perhaps the chief part of its work was in giving instant relief to the most obvious necessities of French hospitals. Supplies were gathered up, some coming from America, and delivered at the hospitals according to their need. Sorting out and delivering hospital socks and slippers, bales of underclothes, bolts of cloth, surgical instruments, represent types of the diversity of the work. In the month of August of the year 1915, more than forty-four thousand articles were given out, which included material for operating rooms, as surgical instruments, sterilizing apparatus, bandages and linen. The hospitals thus helped numbered more than seven hundred.

But perhaps the most picturesque, as certainly the best known of all these forms of service, lay in the Foreign Legion of the French Army. It was a most democratic organization. A member has written of it, saying: --

"Many of the men are educated, and the very lowest is of the high-class workman type. In my room, for instance, there are 'Le Petit Pere U----,' an old Alsatian, who has already served fourteen years in the Legion in China and Morocco; the Corporal L-----, a Socialist well-known in his own district; E-----, a Swiss cotton broker from Havre; D---- C-----, a newspaper man, and short-story writer, who will not serve in the English Army because his family left England in 1745, with the exception of his father, who was captain in the Royal Irish Fusiliers; S-----, a Fijian student at Oxford, 'the blond beast' (Vide Zarathustra) ; von somebody, another Dane, very small and young; B-----, a Swiss carpenter, born and bred in the Alps, who sings, when given a half liter of canteen wine, far better than most comic-opera stars and who at times does the ranz-des-vaches so that even Petit Pere U----- claps; the brigadier M-------, a little Russian, two or three Polish Jews, nondescript Belgians, Greeks, Roumanians, etc."(7)

In the Foreign Legion were found not a few college men among whom Victor Chapman, Harvard '13, and Alan Seeger, Harvard '10, stand forth in moving worthiness,--- both of whom made the great sacrifice.

The number of college graduates and undergraduates who entered this quintette of services was not large. But the spirit, the enthusiasm, the devotion of those who thus enrolled themselves was of the highest and deepest character. It was a service both individual and human. It was not supported by love of America in the degree which the later service inspired. It was a service rendered out of a love for humanity and in the desire to be of individual worth. The element of camaraderie was not present as it was in the college halls of the years '17 and '18. But the sense of individual duty, privilege, devotion, rose to its highest red-crested level. The college men of America never showed themselves more heroic than in services thus rendered in the months and years previous to the first week of April of the year 1917.

As moving and inspiring a spectacle as was furnished by any set of college men is found in the Rhodes scholars who gave themselves to the service in Belgium. About four hundred Americans have availed themselves of Cecil Rhodes' foundation, since its establishment in 1902, in becoming students at Oxford. About three hundred of them entered the service. The beneficence of their presence and work in Belgium in the days of the German occupation is a part of the great contribution which was rendered under the direction and inspiration of Herbert Clark Hoover. Mr. Hoover, himself a graduate of Leland Stanford University, was, by reason of his experience, as well as because of the highest personal qualities, abundantly qualified to guide and to inspire his fellow graduates of American colleges who themselves had been at Oxford. Of them the great interpreter of Belgium, in the years of its Inferno, Mr. Brand Whitlock, has said:

"They came as volunteers, to work for no other reward than the satisfaction of helping in a great humanitarian cause. The work never could have been done without them, or half so well by men who had been paid for their labor. I suppose the world has never seen anything quite like their devotion; it used to amuse, when it did not exasperate, us, to see the Germans so mystified by it; they could not understand it, and were always trying to find out the real reason for their being there . . . . It was, in fact, as fine an example of idealism --- American idealism --- as, in its ultimate organization and direct management, it proved to be of American enterprise and efficiency. The young men were under the heaviest adjurations from all of us to maintain a strict neutrality, and this they all did. Not one of them was ever guilty of an indiscretion, not one of them ever brought dishonor upon the work, or upon their nation, or its flag, or upon the various universities whose honor they held in their keeping and on which they reflected such credit."(8)

Men of such character, of course, would be secured under the conditions laid down by Mr. Rhodes' trustees. In the first circular issued by the trustees, it was said that they desired "as Scholars students of power and promise, and representative types of the manliness, culture, and character of the communities from which they come."(9)

Such devotions, more individual than institutional, were contemporaneous with movements which were rather institutional than individualistic.

A significant development of the last and of the present generation of academic life lies in the association and coöperation of the colleges and universities. This academic development is a microcosm of what has occurred in the nations of the world. Among these educational societies are found the Association of State Universities, the Association of American Universities, the Association of American Colleges, the Association of Urban Universities, the American Association of University Professors, the Association of American Law Schools, the Association of American Medical Colleges, and the American Association of Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations.

These associations,--- a list to which, long as it is, several others might fittingly be added,--- created a spirit of co-working and of inter-institutional service which, in the three years preceding the American declaration of war, were devoted to the welfare of the nation and of the world. The common devotion thus secured in and through the colleges for the nation and for the nations becomes the more marked when seen in contrast with the lack of academic cooperation prevailing in the period of the Civil War. In that period each college gave richest service but gave it largely as an individual unit of society.

The various organizations and agencies, new and old, established for making the services of the colleges effective in the great war were both general and special, transient and lasting. Some of them were clearing houses of activities, while others were directly operating forces.

In point of time the first of these organizations was the Intercollegiate Intelligence Bureau. This Bureau was an agency set up for the purpose of assigning places in the government service to college men and women. With headquarters in Washington, its chief officer and, in a sense, its founder, was Dean William McClellan of the University of Pennsylvania. On its establishment in February, 1917, Secretary Baker said that the organization was "a gift to the nation, a gift of preparedness, alike for service in war and in peace." In making a report reviewing the work, Dean McClellan wrote:--- "We have spent a busy, and, we believe, a useful year in trying to fulfill our obligations and living up to our ideals. We have organized branches at about two hundred colleges, technical and agricultural schools throughout the country and city committees, composed of representative graduates, in the larger centers of the Nation. Using entirely a decentralized system and responding to the definite calls made upon them by our Division of Service Calls at our office here, these branches have had the satisfaction of knowing that about four thousand of the men and women nominated by them have been appointed to positions of responsibility in the service of the National Government. All of these positions called for highly trained specialists in professional and technical fields. Roughly speaking, about 50 per cent. of them represented commissions in the Army or Navy. Every nomination accepted and also the many nominations made in good faith which did not result in appointments, were thoroughly investigated before being sent in both by our branches and by us, and we have the satisfaction of sincerely believing that no finer body of loyal citizens can be found than the men who are now serving the country and who found their proper places through the agency of this Bureau."

The second event in the earlier academic history was found in a conference held in Washington on May fifth of the same year of 1917. In Continental Hall on that day, about one hundred and fifty representatives of the leading colleges and universities assembled. They were called together by President Hollis Godfrey, of the Drexel Institute, Philadelphia, serving as chairman of one of the committees of the Advisory Commission of the Council of National Defense. This conference, after prolonged and warm discussion, issued a statement which voiced the feeling of the college officers of that critical time. The members declared that their single thought and desire were to summon their every resource and to give the nation, without reservation, all their facilities, dedicating themselves to the supreme ideals out of which both their institutions and the nation were born. In particular they affirmed that they were willing to change courses of studies and their calendar-year in such ways as would most effectively fill the needs of the nation. They asked that plans be made and published for the closest coöperation between the government and the universities. They expressed a wish for information regarding the methods of the government in carrying on the war in order that their own forces might be the more thoroughly mobilized. They also intimated a desire to know the methods which are adopted by colleges and universities of the allied countries in meeting the conditions of the war. This conference was of the utmost value in uniting, solidifying and energizing college sentiment respecting the seriousness of the condition and the rights and the duties of the higher institutions of learning in the prosecution of the war.

A third organization relating to the colleges bore the name of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics. This organization was in its constitution in part only academic. But in it six outstanding institutions, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cornell University, Ohio State University, University of Texas, University of Illinois, and University of California, had the prevailing and controlling interest. In and through these schools were trained aviators to the number, at times, of about a thousand a month. As aviation is primarily a scientific work it was fitting that those following this art should be trained in schools of science.

A fourth item in this academic martial interpretation related to the War Department Committee on Classification of Personnel in the Army. This committee, organized largely by Professor Walter Dill Scott of Northwestern University, had for its purpose the classification of men of draft age and condition on the basis of education and other allied qualities. This body made a distinct contribution in impressing upon the governmental authorities the value of scientific training as a military factor. In creating this factor it was made plain that the efficiency of the scientific and other schools in training graduates and undergraduates as officers, was most important.

Mention should also be made of a further educational force although this force belonged less to the higher learning than did several other agencies. It was the Federal Board for Vocational Education. This Board, originally organized under the Smith-Hughes act, was concerned largely with the training of mechanics and technicians.

The sixth agency, and one of the more important, was the American Council on Education. The American Council on Education represented some fifteen educational Associations of the United States, and was formed primarily to aid the government in meeting certain needs of the war conditions. It also served to unite these educational bodies in a common purpose and to interpret the aims and the methods of each to the other. Not only was a better understanding thus established between the Associations themselves, but the government was enabled to use efficiently an instrument which proved of invaluable service. The Associations, too, were benefited by a leadership, the lack of which, in their relation to national work, had been keenly felt.

The purpose of the American Council on Education, or the Emergency Council on Education, is best stated in a paragraph taken from one of its own records:

"To place the educational resources of the country more completely at the service of the National Government and its departments, to the end that, through an understanding coöperation, the patriotic services of the public schools, colleges and universities may be augmented; that a continuous supply of educated men may be maintained; and greater effectiveness in meeting the educational problems arising during and following the war may be secured."

The American Council on Education had charge of the Publicity Campaign for the Students' Army Training Corps. Directors were appointed in every state, the coöperation of all colleges, universities, public schools, and other institutions and organizations, was sought, a great amount of "literature" was issued, and a large correspondence carried on.

Because of the urgent need of nurses, at the request of the Surgeon General of the War Department, the Council took upon itself the duty of arranging for courses of twelve weeks' duration, for the preliminary training of nurses in colleges and universities. So well did the Council succeed in this task that, at the signing of the armistice, over fifty institutions had pledged to offer such courses. A campaign, too, had been arranged to secure women of essential fitness for nursing, ten thousand of whom the Council had promised to obtain and to have their training completed before the 1st of July, 1919.

Through its efforts scholarships for French women, scholarships for invalided French men, and for Russian soldiers were established. Over two hundred French women, under its auspices, came to the United States to enter its colleges and universities,--- the college fees of whom were met by the institutions receiving them. Forty invalided French men were brought to this country under conditions similar to those obtaining in the case of the women.

The Council had charge of the visits to the United States of the British Educational Mission and of the French Educational Mission.

These facts indicate only a few of the great services given by the American Council on Education. That its work will be of vital importance in the future is assured. It already has outlined for itself a course of activities which include International Educational Relations, Educational Information and Standards, Educational Policy and Organization, Education for Citizenship, and the Training of Women for Public Service.

The National Research Council was fittingly named as an agency of the higher military education.

It was established by the Academy of Sciences in the year 1916, as a measure of preparedness in the event of war. In 1918, the Council was taken over by the government of the United States, and, after the armistice, in the spring of 1919 it was reorganized as a permanent institution.

In an executive order of the President of the 11th of May, 1918, its work was made to have a six-fold relation: (1) the quickening of research in the sciences and in their application to the useful arts, in order to increase knowledge, to strengthen national defense, and to contribute in other ways to the public welfare; (2) the surveying of the larger possibilities of science, the forming of comprehensive projects of research, the developing of proper means for utilizing scientific and technical resources of the country in conducting these projects; (3) the promotion of cooperation in research, at home and abroad, to secure concentration of effort, and so on, but, at the same time, to encourage individual initiative as being of fundamental importance to the advancement of science; (4) to bring American and foreign investigators into active coöperation with the scientific and technical service of the War and Navy Departments, /as well as those of the civil branches of the Government; (5) to call the attention of scientific and technical investigators to the importance of military and industrial problems in connection with the war, and to the furthering of the solution of these problems by specific researches; (6) the gathering and collating of all scientific and technical information, in coöperation with Governmental and other agencies, rendering such information available to duly accredited persons.(10)

Associated in the Council were representatives of national scientific and technical societies, of the United States Government, of other research organizations, and of people specially trained, and by nature fitted, to promote its plans and purposes.

The Council was and is composed of a central governing body, an Executive Board, and of thirteen divisions. These thirteen divisions were divided into two classes, Divisions of General Relations and Divisions of Science and Technology. Under the first heading were included the Government Division, the Division of Foreign Relations, the Division of States Relations, the Division of Educational Relations, the Division of Industrial Relations and the Research Information Service. In the Divisions of Science and Technology were the Division of Physical Science, the Division of Engineering, the Division of Chemistry and Chemical Technology, the Division of Geology and Geography, the Division of Medical Sciences, the Division of Biology and Agriculture, and the Division of Anthropology and Psychology. The men forming each division were chosen from every field of knowledge and training which fitted them for the special work.

The Division of Educational Relations made a survey of all American educational institutions and of all educational conditions in general, in America, to learn of the possibilities for scientific research, and to encourage, to inspire and to train men having the proper qualifications for this most important service. It was and is the aim of the Council to coöperate with the universities in establishing favorable conditions, and in seeking out and stimulating men to undertake scientific research.

Perhaps the most important of all these diverse agencies and institutions was the organization known as the Committee on Education and Special Training. The nature of this agency is well indicated in a letter of the Secretary of War written February 20, 1918, and addressed to the presidents of educational institutions :---

"The exigencies of the War have emphasized very strongly the value of the educational institutions of the nation in connection with our military effort. The schools and colleges of the country have with admirable spirit placed their resources at the disposal of the War Department and other branches of the Government. Much splendid work has already been done in training men for the Army, for example---in the Reserve Officers' Training Corps, the Aviation Ground Schools, the Ordnance Stores courses and in the training of various kinds of specialists.

"The desirability of having a single agency in the War Department to deal with the many problems of education and training which continually arise has been made evident. For the purpose of organizing and coördinating all of the educational resources of the country with relation to the needs of the Army, I have, therefore, appointed a new committee of the General Staff to be known as the 'Committee on Education and Special Training.' A copy of the General Order naming this committee and defining its functions is enclosed. It will be the function of this committee to represent the War Department in its relations with the educational institutions of the country and to develop and standardize policies as between the schools and colleges and the War Department.

"The war has developed a demand for large numbers of technically trained men. Until recently this demand has been felt especially for men of advanced training. Now, however, it extends to men with elementary training, as mechanics of various kinds. In order to avoid unnecessary disturbance to essential industries through withdrawal of skilled men an effort will be made to give large numbers of men entering the service intensive elementary training along vocational lines. In the task of training these men the schools and colleges can be of the greatest assistance. It will be one of the first duties of the Committee on Education and Special Training to formulate definite plans in coöperation with schools and colleges for training these men."

Under this order were inaugurated various methods for the training of mechanics and technicians, but in particular and more important for the present purpose was thus established what is historically the most unique development of the martial academic life the Students' Army Training Corps. To this organization a following chapter is devoted.

In the paragraphs that have been concerned with these eight forces and agencies the writer has yet not forgotten the Reserve Officers' Training Corps. The Reserve Officers' Training Corps was established in about one-third of all the colleges and universities. A dire need of the American Army was of properly trained officers. To the colleges the government turned for the filling of this need. Among the general principles noted in the Act of June 3, 1916 is: "It should be the aim of every educational institution to maintain one or more units of the Reserve Officers' Training Corps in order that in time of national emergency there may be a sufficient number of educated men, trained in military science and tactics, to officer and lead intelligently the units of the large armies upon which the safety of the country will depend. The extent to which this object is accomplished will be the measure of the success of the Reserve Officers' Training Corps." In carrying out these principles a thorough course of training was organized which included both the theoretical and practical parts of the making of a soldier. The course of study embodied topics as remote and diverse as the international relations of America from the day of Columbus to the present day, the intimate relationship between the statesman and the soldier, and training in horsemanship and target practice. The general course was comprehensive of military education, uniting many and diverse subjects.

The education that was thus given for a period of two years in certain colleges proved to be of great worth in the subsequent training of the camp and in the active operations of the field. Merged for a time in the Students' Army Training Corps, the Reserve Officers' Training Corps was reëstablished soon after the demobilization under authority of an act of the twenty-third of November, 1918. The subsequent value in times of peace of military training in the colleges belongs to a later part of academic history.

As one considers the list of organizations founded by, for or among the colleges and universities several reflections emerge.

The first remark concerns the diversity of function rendered by these academic forces. This diversity extended from the training of officers and of privates for military, naval, and aerial service to the discovery and publication of knowledge, from the heartening of professors and students in the individual college to the mobilizing of all the forces, intellectual and administrative, athletic and social, of all colleges and universities. The second remark concerns the importance of these diverse functions in a nation which, by history, tradition, and preference, is a nonmilitary power. It was to the men of liberal education and association that the government turned for material for counselors, for leaders and for officers. West Point and Annapolis were, of course, great resources. But it was recognized that the material for officers furnished by the colleges was, in many respects, quite as adequate as that offered by these special schools. Liberal learning was again proved to be a first-rate foundation and force for technical training and for military efficiency.

It is also plain, in the third place, that the diversity of these functions and the energy thus employed sprang out of the desire and the power of the college to do its utmost for the welfare of the nation and of humanity in the great crisis. Trustees, teachers, students, recognized that the supreme and fundamental purposes of the higher education,--- purposes incarnated in its own history,--- were at stake. They were therefore prepared and quickened to give their all.

A fourth reflection is found in the pleasant judgment that in this variety of services, services not infrequently crossing each other in methods and means, occurred a smaller waste of force, both material and human, than would easily be believed possible. There was so much to do, so few to do the much, the time was so short, and the emergency so critical, that the temptation to waste, to jealousy, or to inefficiency, was slight. If one bureau found itself superfluous, it could easily disband or change its function, transferring to another agency its special duty. Often the very success of a board promoted its dissolution.

The history of the war could in a sense be measured by the making and the unmaking of the forces which had accomplished their individual tasks.

Throughout the academic year of 1916-17, the colleges and universities were in a condition of uncertainty. The world crisis betokened a crisis academic. This uncertainty and critical condition showed itself in manifold forms. No form was more insistent, or more alarming, than that relating to income and to the number of students attending as a basis of income. The picture which the academic authorities were obliged to present to themselves in the year 1916-17 regarding finance was of extreme significance. The picture was composed of both fact and inference, of general truth and of its immediate application.

The colleges and universities of the United States possess several sources of income. One of the more natural and normal is found in the fees paid by the students for instruction. One source, also natural and normal, is the income from endowment --- endowment which is the result of gift or of bequest, and is invested usually in good bonds and first-rate stocks.

In certain institutions the endowment is invested at least in part in revenue-producing real estate.

In addition to these three sources, certain institutions receive special grants or gifts. The State universities are the beneficiaries of their respective Commonwealths and are largely supported by grants made, annually or biennially, by special act or general statutes by the Legislature. Certain municipal universities, likewise, are the beneficiaries of the tax-duplicate of their respective cities. Some denominational colleges are the recipients, too, of donations from the churches of which they are a part, more or less integral. It is also further to be noted that practically all institutions find in their trustees and other friends benefactors who, with a certain degree of regularity, and usually with great generosity, give to the support of the educational trust to which they are committed.

But, omitting the State universities, it is to be said that the two first-named sources, fees and income from endowment, are the principal reservoirs whence flow the support of the typical American college and university. These two sources are, at the present time, about equal in amount, and it is not a little remarkable how nearly equal these two amounts have maintained themselves in the last four or five decades, a period which covers the time in which institutions of the higher learning have made the furthest and most rapid progress.

In the year 1876, 49 per cent. of the income of our colleges was derived from fees paid by the students, and 51 per cent. from the revenue of the endowment. Twenty years after, in 1896, the proportion paid by the students had risen to 60 per cent., and that provided by capital had fallen to 40 per cent. In the year 1916 the proportion had so moved up and moved down that it had reached almost the middle point between the extremes of 1876 and 1896, 55 per cent. being paid by students and 45 per cent. being drawn from the income of endowment.

The steadiness of these proportions seems to be all the more remarkable when one recalls the vast increase of these two items. For in 1876 the income from productive funds was $2,060,182 and the income from fees was $1,984,811. In 1896 the income from productive funds had become $6,191,204 and the income paid by the students $9,585,772. But in 1916 the income from productive funds had lifted itself to $18,246,427 and the income from students to the stupendous sum of $23,603,919. In forty years the increase in the gross amounts had, in the ease of endowment, been multiplied ninefold and in the case of fees about twelvefold, and yet the proportional percentage had remained pretty steady.

It is interesting, moreover, to note and to compare the different amounts received by colleges in the different parts of the United States from students and from the annual endowment income. In the report of the Commissioner of Education for the year 1916, in the North Atlantic States about 58 per cent. of the income was derived from students' fees and about 42 from the income of endowment. In the South Atlantic States about 66 per cent. of the income was derived from students' payments and 34 per cent. from the income of endowment. In the Southern Central States about 42 per cent. was derived from the fees paid by students and about 58 per cent. from the income of endowment; and in the Western States 45 per cent. was derived from the fees paid by students and about 55 from the income of endowment.

The facts regarding a few representative colleges and universities regarding the proportional amount of income drawn from students and from endowment become yet more interesting as the facts become more definite. In the year 1916 Harvard University drew $859,819 from the fees of students and $1,374,677 from the income of endowment; Yale University, $557,941 from the fees of students and $827,254 from the income of endowment; Stanford University, $98,273 from the fees of students and $836,527 from the income of endowment; the University of Chicago, $708,175 from the fees of students and $1,094,254 from the income of endowment; Princeton, $221,220 from the fees of students and $267,643 from the income of endowment; Columbia, $987,559 from the fees of students and $1,255,619 from the income of endowment; Johns Hopkins University, $125,477 from the fees of students and $322,516 from endowment; Amherst, $59,957 from the fees of students and $139,982 from the income of endowment; Massachusetts Institute of Technology, $429,963 from the fees of students and $101,280 from the income of endowment; Williams College, $95,918 from the fees of students and $83,156 from the income of endowment; Cornell University drew $622,575 from the fees of students and $675,347 from the income of endowment.

In a preceding paragraph I deferred the consideration of the State universities in respect to their sources of income. For these universities form a class. They are supported out of the public chest. They are an integral part of the system of public education of each Commonwealth. The amounts drawn from the fees of their students and from the income of their endowments are usually relatively small. The larger share of the revenue lies in grants made from the public exchequer. The sums thus derived form pleasant and inspiring reading. In the year 1916-17 the University of California received from students the sum of $292,102 and from the State of California for current expenses $1,339,999; the University of Illinois, from students $236,150 and from the State $1,636,500; the University of Indiana, from students $41,000 and from the State $534,000; the University of Iowa, from students $80,498 and from the State $519,700; the University of Kansas, from students $99,917 and from the State $560,500; the University of Michigan, from students the large sum of $457,411 and from the State $1,026,800; the University of Minnesota, from students $248,719 and from the State $1,415,663; the University of Missouri, from students $114,725 and from the State $553,084; the University of Nebraska, from students $85,214 and from the State $622,648; Ohio State University, from students $222,480 and from the State $868,361; the University of Wisconsin, from students $452,090 and from the State $1,66,723.

This record is indeed of inspiring force to one measuring the progress of a people in terms of intellectual instruction or of intellectual power.

I have referred to the crisis which the colleges were facing in the academic year of 1916-17. Certain financial facts which helped to constitute this crisis I have stated, and other facts perhaps need no statement. But one simple fact cannot be stated with too great emphasis. It is the fact of the uncertainty of revenue which arose from the doubt attending the number of students who should be enrolled in these more than five hundred colleges and universities. The revenue was uncertain because the students, who normally would furnish about one-half of the revenue, formed a very doubtful quantity. Taking the whole country, there were about twenty per cent. fewer students in the colleges in the year 1917-18 than in 1910-17. The proportion differed in many institutions. These differences are shown in the following table:

Regarding the reduction in the number of students for the year and years following the academic period of 1917-18 what prophet would have dared to foretell? It seemed probable that the draft age would be lowered below twenty-one. Most boys enter college about the age of eighteen and one-half years. One argued that they would not be called to the colors. The increase of pay, moreover, for work was compelling. The actual need of workers was rather persuasive to the conscientious youth. The boy of eighteen, ineligible for service, might yet take the place of a brother of twenty-four who had gone to France. A general dislocation of forces and values, intellectual, commercial, industrial, turned the attention of youth from forces academic. In times of war scholarship is in peril of being silent.

What, therefore, were the colleges to do in arranging their scale of expenditures for the forthcoming year and years? That was the question with which boards of trustees, faculties, and academic executives were deeply concerned in the closing months of the academic year of 1917-18.

In answer it was said that there were certain methods of a negative sort worthy at least of consideration. One of the more impressive developments of the last decade and decades is the vast increase in numbers of the teaching staff. Such a development, in a condition like that obtaining in 1917-18, almost inevitably ceases. With this ceasing also ceases a certain increase in the expense side of a budget. Along with this limitation may arise a material limitation in the stopping of the erection of new buildings or of additions to equipment. Of course, such a negative action is simply analogous to the method pursued in any business of cutting down cost.

A second method of a more or less negative type was found in the lessening of expenses through the enlistments of teachers in the national service. In not a few colleges the names of scores of men were borne on the official registers and catalogues as absent on leave in the national service. Some of these men received no, or small, pay from the Government. They were serving for a "dollar a year." In the case of others a certain moderate stipend was derived from the Government, and from the Government only. In the case of others --- a large number --- the Governmental pay was augmented by an amount made up by the individual college which still bore the enlisted men upon its official registers. The design in this case usually was to make the pay derived from both the college and the Government equal to that formerly derived from the college. In still other instances, the amount of compensation was determined not by uniform principle or method, but by individual arrangement made between the person engaged in the national service and his college.

A third method lay in the sad measure of cutting down the salaries of the teaching staff and of administrative officers. This measure was seldom suffered. Such a reduction would not only have hurt most deserving members of a most important profession, but it would have also damaged the profession in the eyes and heart of the public. Such a damage would have been nothing less than a disaster to the whole community as well as to the profession itself. The disaster would have become even more disastrous in view of the increasing cost of living.

A fourth method of reduction opened. It consisted in the suspension, for the time being, of departments, either by complete elimination or by union with other departments. Latin and Greek were, be it said with deep regret, declining forces in the academic curriculum. Greek had, much to the sorrow of a large part of the older thinking members of the community, approached the vanishing point of Hebrew. Latin each year had been commanding a smaller clientele. These two literatures and languages might for the hour be united in their teaching. The same method might be pursued with French and German, as they had been formally united in an early academic period, under the general head of "Modern Languages." German in the year 1917-18 was elected by only one-half of the number of students who chose it in the year preceding. The number of students in French was about doubled. In this relation many small sections of students --- and the number of such sections was and is more numerous than usually believed --- might be reduced or entirely eliminated. Large classes are not effective as educational conditions. But for the time being they might be suffered.

Turning now to the positive method, it was said that income might be increased through the gifts of trustees and of friends, gifts made for immediate expenditures. Such a method was and is normal. Trustees are bound to protect and to promote trusts entrusted to them. The war was to end some time. The demand for educated men was to be vast at the end of the war. The colleges were to give such men to the community. A vision of duty, of privilege, cannot but influence trustees to hold together the complex and serious agencies which contribute to the higher education. They are ever to be prepared to advance these agencies whenever the door of opportunity opens. They are to be at once conservative and progressive. They are to conserve, to save, to cause to endure, to hold fast all that the past offers. They are also to go on, to advance into new realms of enlarging opportunity. Never is a board of trustees to sound retreat in any, institution which ought to live.

This method of raising money for the immediate need was better, in my judgment, inexpressibly better, than the method of borrowing to meet emergencies. The method of borrowing, I am sorry to say, certain colleges did adopt. For debts are to be paid. It was recognized that the future would lay special demands upon the American college, and that the meeting of these subsequent demands would be interfered with by the paying of old debts.

Boards of trustees, to whom are primarily committed the financial interests of American colleges and universities, as to the faculties are committed the scholastic concerns, are, as a rule, composed of men high in purpose, able in intellect, sensitive to public needs, and devoted to their academic duty. They are frequently not well informed regarding the place of the higher education in a democracy. But such lack of information and of consequent sympathy is quite as often due to an inefficient president as to any other cause. Yet as a body they have vision ---though not often a far-off one --- and they also have what is of greater and of greatest importance, capacities for concerted and high resolution and action whenever the occasion strongly calls. The closing months of the war in the history of American institutions of the higher learning were apparently to constitute such an occasion and the occasion was continued in the following years. These bodies of trustees did prove able to do their own great duties, and to quicken other men to do their duties likewise in the crisis.

To the taking of risks (though not too boldly), to the making of sacrifice, and to the upholding of intellectual standards in an industrial age, in a period of necessary and glorious military force, these boards of trustees gave themselves willingly, fearlessly, and triumphantly. For such self-giving, people ultimately receive richest rewards: --- the consciousness that in a time of public doubt, anxiety, and fear, they have helped to transmute things material through personal devotion into truth and into righteousness.